Mirror neurons differ from visual and motor neurons as they contain both visual and motor responses in the same neuron. Therefore, they are considered different from pure visual neurons (Herrington et al., 2011). It should be noted that, in the perception of movements, there are both visual and motor systems besides visual systems. In short, the perception and production of movements involve an integrated process rather than two separate cognitive processes (Demir and Gergerlioğlu, 2012). In brain imaging studies, the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and inferior parietal gyrus (IPG), along with Brodmann areas 44-45, are recognized as classical areas belonging to the mirror neuron network (Hari et al., 2021).

In a study, lesions were created with rTMS in the mirror neuron system's areas, including the Broca area and IFG, and the ability of subjects to imitate various actions was examined. The results showed a decrease in imitation and repetition skills in subjects with created lesions (Heiser et al., 2003). In a study conducted by Fazio et al. (2011) on individuals with Broca's aphasia but without apraxia, participants were found to be unable to predict the sequence of actions performed by a human but could predict the sequence of independent physical movements.

Mirror neurons can be activated differently depending on the observer's perspective. In a study conducted by Caggiano et al. (2011), different subsets of mirror neurons were found to be activated when an action was observed from a distance compared to when it was observed from the perspective of the action performer.

For mirror neuron activity in humans, a purely visual path is not necessary; it can also be activated acoustically or tactically. Mirror neurons can be activated acoustically when there is sufficient auditory information (Ricciardi et al., 2009).

Mirror neurons, in humans as well as in macaque monkeys, replicate and imitate movements, but they are more developed in humans. In addition to these features, it is known that mirror neurons play a role in various complex functions such as empathy, language, learning, and memory (Hari et al., 2021).

In a study, viewers were shown various films, and the control group was shown an unedited segment from a typical day in the park. Brain activities were measured with fMRI, and it was examined whether there was a difference between the shown segments. According to the results of correlation analysis, there was a moderate to high correlation between segments obtained from various and different films, while there was a low correlation between segments shown in the park (Hasson et al., 2008). Because the plot and emotions in cinema are considered to be more significant than in a typical day at the park, viewers' mirror neurons were thought to be more activated, leading to higher brain activities.

It is suggested that mirror neurons play a role in many diseases. For example, lower mirror neuron activity has been found in autism patients. This implies that mirror neurons play a crucial role in communication. Mirror neuron activity also plays a role in Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and ALS diseases, and the mirror neuron activities of patients with these diseases were found to be lower compared to healthy individuals (Hari et al., 2021).

In conclusion, mirror neurons play a role from primitive behaviors to higher cognitive behaviors. Mirror neurons provide a vital convenience for human beings, who are social beings. This neuron network, which is still the subject of extensive research today, holds great importance. Studies on the activation of these neuron networks in clinical diseases and their improvement in clinical patients are still on going.

REFERENCES

• Hari E, Cengiz C, Kilic F, Yurdakos E. A clinical approach to the mirror neuron system and its functions. J Ist Faculty Med 2021;84(3):430-8. doi: 10.26650/IUITFD.2021.81b4218
• Demir, E.A. ve Gergerlioğlu,H.S. (2012). Ayna Nöron Sistemine Genel Bakış. Eur J. Med Sci,2(4),122-126.
• Heiser M, Iacoboni M, Maeda F, Marcus J, Mazziotta JC. The essential role of Broca’s area in imitation. Eur J Neurosci,17(5),1123-8.
• Herrington,J.D.,Nymberg,C., Schultz, R.T.(2011).Biological motivation task performance predicts superior temporal sulcus activity. Brain Cogn,3(77),372-81.
• Caggiano,V., Fogassi,L., Rizolatti,G.,Thier,P.,Giese M.A.,Casile A.(2011). View-based enconding of actions in mirror neurons in area F5 in macaque premotor cortex. Curr Biol,21(2),144-148.
• Ricciardi,E.,Bonino,D.,Sani,L.,Vecchi,T.,Guazzelli,M.,Haxby,JV.,Fadiga,L.,Pietrini,P. (2009). Do we really need vision? How blind people “see” the actions of others. J  Neusci,29(97),9719-24.
• Fazio,P.,Cantagallo,A.,Craighero,L.,D’Auliso,A.,Roy AC.,Pozoo,T. Ve ark.(2009). Enconding of human action in Broca’s area. Brain,132(7),1980-8.
• Hasson, U., Landesman, O., Knappmeyer, B., Vallines, I., Rubin, N. & Heeger, D. J. (2008). Neurocinematics: The neuroscience of film. Projections, 2(1), 1-26.
• Demirtaş,H.(2002), İletişim Psikolojisi. Nobel Akademi Yayıncılık.,93-111.

Researchers have explored neurostimulation interventions for the treatment of resistant OCD cases, including repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS), ablative stereotactic neurosurgery, and deep brain stimulation.

rTMS is a technique introduced by Barker et al. (1985), involving the non-invasive application of electromagnetic pulses to specific areas of the brain. Utilizing a non-isolated coil, an electric current is passed through it, generating a magnetic field of approximately 2 Tesla. These currents create magnetic field pulses in a localized area beneath the coil, traversing the superficial skin and skull to reach the superficial brain region (Sehn, Eslick, & Brakoulias, 2018). Consequently, it induces depolarization of cortical neurons, leading to the generation of action potentials in neurons through trans-synaptic mechanisms (Jaafari et al., 2012).

rTMS has various methods, including single-pulse, paired-pulse, and repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), which involves delivering transmissions to the brain in a repetitive training manner.

As for the side effects of rTMS, they include headaches, neck and back pains, and sensations of discomfort in the scalp. Physiologically, rTMS has some negative effects, such as triggering certain seizures, which vary based on the intensity, frequency, and the individual's medical history (Wassermann, 1998; Rossi et al., 2009).

While research on rTMS therapy has primarily focused on depression, it has also been studied for conditions such as anxiety disorders, PTSD, and OCD (Jaafari et al., 2012).

When examining the neurobiology of OCD, it has been found that specific brain regions, including the caudate nucleus, Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC), and thalamus, are associated with emotion and cognition regulation (Whiteside, 2004). Generally, OCD is linked to a disorder in the orbitofronto-striato-pallido-thalamic circuit, which includes the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (DLPFC), ACC, Supplementary Motor Area (SMA), Orbitofrontal Cortex (OFC), medial prefrontal cortex, and basal ganglia. Neurophysiological studies have shown hyperactivity in DLPFC, SMA, and OFC in OCD patients, indicating a deficiency in response control in information processing (Sehn, Eslick, & Brakoulias, 2018). The high activity in SMA may explain the lack of control over behavior in OCD. Therefore, TMS therapy targets specific areas associated with OCD in cases that do not respond to first-line treatments and exhibit resistance.

REFERENCES

Tan, O., Hızlı Sayar, G., Önen Ünsalver, B., Arat, M. A., Karamustafalıoğlu, O. (2015). Combining transcranial magnetic stimulation and cognitive-behavioral therapy in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. Anadolu Psikiyatri Dergisi, 16, 180-188. doi: 10.5455/apd.160156.

Jaafari, N., Rachid, F., Yves-Rotge, J., Polosan, M., El-Hage, W., Belin, D., Vibert, N., Pelissolo, A. (2012). Safety and efficacy of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: A review. The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry, 13:3, 164-177. DOI: 10.3109/15622975.2011.575177.

Wassermann EM. (1998). Risk and safety of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation: report and suggested guidelines from the International Workshop on the Safety of Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation, Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 108(1) – 16.

Rehn, S., Eslick, D. G., Brakoulias, V. (2018). A Meta-Analysis of the Effectiveness of Different Targets Used in Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS) for the Treatment of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD). Psychiatr Q, 89:645–665. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-018-9566-7.

Risk and protective factors play a significant role in explaining the concept of psychological resilience. Risk factors encompass all events that could lead to negative outcomes. Protective factors, on the other hand, are factors that reduce the impact of negative consequences resulting from adverse life events. Negative events experienced in early childhood or adolescence can lead to disruptions in later development stages. Low socioeconomic status, genetic disorders, domestic violence, and disasters can be cited as examples of risk factors (Werner, 1989). Risk factors are considered predictors of developmental and psychological problems that may occur later in life (Werner, 1989). In Garmezy's (1987) study, it was found that children with fewer protective factors and a low socioeconomic status were exposed to a higher level of stressful life.

Masten (1994) notes that there is an inverse relationship between protective factors and risk factors, suggesting that increasing resilience skills reduces stress. The reason why this resilience skill affects some people more than others could be a factor in the development of psychological resilience. In the formation of psychological resilience, protective factors are believed to accelerate the adaptation process by acting as a shield against adverse conditions created by risk factors. Among these protective factors, perceived social support, intelligence, academic achievement, effective communication within the family, and social support from outside the family are considered several factors that enhance psychological resilience. These protective factors are divided into three categories; positive self-references of the individual, the level of emotional attachment within the family, and the presence of social support perceived outside the family (Werner, 1989). Protective factors are more effective in increasing an individual's resilience and coping with adverse life events regardless of the level and type of risk.

Individuals with high psychological resilience are better at dealing with problems in the face of adverse life events than those with lower psychological resilience. They possess qualities such as optimism, strong moral principles, beliefs, spirituality, the ability to determine life goals more easily, and successful social relationships.

Although psychological resilience appears to be related to negative life events, it is, in fact, a concept that arises from everyday life. Along with psychological resilience, individuals can stand stronger against life and develop by overcoming difficulties. The importance of the concept of psychological resilience, especially for young adults, adolescents, and children, has increased in our country due to recent natural disasters, economic crises, and other crises. Therefore, it is crucial to develop intervention and educational programs for the advancement of this concept of psychological resilience and to improve the psychological counseling and guidance services in schools.

References

Karaırmak, Ö.(2007).Psikolojik sağlamlılık, risk faktörleri ve koruyucu faktörler. Türk Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Dergisi, 3(26).

Masten, A. S. ve Reed, M.G. (2002). Resilience in development. In C.R. Snyder ve S. J. Lopez (Eds.), The handbook of positive psychology (pp. 74- 88). Oxford University.

Üsküdar  Üniversitesi/ Üsküdar Pozitif Psikoloji.”Psikolojik Sağlamlılık” erişim: 7 Ekim 2023. https://uskudar.edu.tr/pozitif-psikoloji/psikolojik-saglamlik

Werner, E. E. (1989). High-risk children in young adulthood: A longitudinal study from birth to 32 years. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 59, 72-81.