In DSM-5, paraphilia disorders are defined as repetitive sexual activities against unusual objects lasting at least 6 months. According to the American Psychiatric Association (APA), people often use paraphilic fantasies for sexual excitement and arousal (cited in Malin & Saleh, 2007). It is not illegal for a person to have paraphilia, but in some cases it may be enough to go to the judicial authorities. DSM-5 attempted to distinguish this issue by adding the phrase "disorder" next to paraphilia. In short, having a paraphilia is not enough for that person to be diagnosed with paraphilia disorder.

Paraphilia disorders included in DSM are fetishism disorder, pedophilia disorder and incest, voyeurism disorder, demonstrative disorder, friction disorder, sexual sadism and sexual masochism disorder.

Fetishism disorder is the use of an object or a non-genital part of the body as the basis for sexual arousal. Those with fetishism disorder are usually men. Types of sexual fetishism can be very diverse. These; These are sexual fetishisms such as foot fetishism, shoe fetishism, sock fetishism, hand fetishism, breast fetishism, race fetishism, underwear fetishism, belly fetishism, necrophilia, and more.

Although fetish has special importance even in childhood, the disease usually begins in adolescence. Those with fetishism disorder often have other paraphilias, such as pedophilia disorder, sadism and masochism (Mason, 1997).

Pedophilia disorder and incest is an intense and distressing desire that causes a person to be sexually attracted to prepubescent children and to have a sexual orientation towards children. According to DSM-5, the offender must be at least 18 years old and at least 5 years older than the child. Many men who admitted to having pedophilia disorder stated that they used child pornography (Riegel, 2004).

People with pedophilia disorder are often neighbors or friends of the family, and these people abuse children they know, and sexual abuse may continue unless the child speaks up or this is noticed by other adults.

Incest is listed as a subtype of pedophilia disorder. Incest is sexual relations between close relatives for whom marriage is prohibited. The most common is between brother and sister. The second incest, which is seen as more pathological and is the most common, is between father and daughter. It has also been proven that incest rarely occurs in patriarchal families, especially in families where women's subordination to men is respected (Alexander and Lupfer, 1987).

Voyeuristic disorder is the state of being sexually gratified by watching the naked or during sexual intercourse. Observers orgasm either during the viewing or by masturbating afterwards. Its prevalence is a matter of debate, as such incidents are often not reported to the police.

It usually starts during adolescence. Those who meet the diagnostic criteria for voyeuristic disorder usually have other paraphilias, but their tendency to other mental disorders is not high.

Demonstration disorder is an intense desire to achieve sexual satisfaction by repeatedly exposing one's genitals to an unwilling stranger, sometimes to a child. It usually starts during adolescence.

The urge to display is very intense and dominant. Exhibitionism appears to be triggered by feelings of anxiety and restlessness, as well as by almost uncontrollable sexual arousal. Due to the compulsive nature of the urges, exposure may be repeated frequently, at the same time of day or even in the same place. The social and legal consequences do not occur to the exhibitionist at the time of the behavior (Stevenson and Jones, 1972).

Frictional disorder involves sexually directed touching of a person. A person may rub his penis on a woman's hips or butt, or caress her breast or genitals. These behaviors often occur in crowded places or on sidewalks that make escape easy. It is usually seen together with other paraphilias (Longstrom, 2010).

Sexual sadism is defined as an intense and recurring desire for sexual gratification that is caused by pain or psychological suffering. Sexual self-abnegation (masochism) is defined as the state of being subjected to pain or humiliation in order to achieve sexual satisfaction. Some sadists orgasm by inflicting pain, while some masochists achieve orgasm by being exposed to pain.

Indicators of masochism vary. Physical slavery; blindfolding, beating, whipping, cutting, etc. It also involves the person being forced to follow rules and orders by taking on the role of slave.

In big cities, clubs meet the needs of people looking for sadomasochistic partners. Many people who exhibit sadomasochistic behaviors are relatively comfortable with their sexual practices (Spengler, 1977).

Sadism and masochism occur in early adulthood and both occur in gay and heterosexual relationships. In surveys, it was found that 20-30% of the members of sadomasochistic clubs were women (Moser and Levitt, 1987). There is evidence that many sadists and masochists live traditional lives and their income and education levels are above average (Moser and Levitt, 1987). Alcohol abuse is common among sadists (Allnutt, Bradford, Greenberg et al., 1996).

Research findings on treatments for paraphilia disorders are limited. Treatment approaches should begin with a focus on motivating and engaging the client. Early cognitive behavioral approaches focus on aversion therapy and cognitive techniques that challenge distorted thoughts about the consequences of sexual behavior. The most common drug treatment is antidepressants, or drugs that reduce male hormone levels, but research on antidepressants is weak and drugs that affect hormones have serious side effects.

REFERENCES

Duman, N. (2018). Parafililer ve DSM’lerdeki seyri. OPUS–Uluslararası Toplum Araştırmaları Dergisi, 9(16), 1285-1306. DOI: 10.26466/opus.481118

Kring A., Johnson S., Davison G., Neale J., (2019), Anormal Psikoloji (Abnormal Psychology) (12. Basım), Nobel Akademik Yayıncılık, Ankara.

At the age of 11, he left his hometown and was sent to a high school in Basel, and both the new city and the school he attended were a shocking experience for Jung. The fact that the financial situation of the people here was quite good enabled him to realize how poor they were and to see his parents from a different perspective and to understand the troubles and sorrows of his family.

Jung found religion classes boring and mathematics too incomprehensible. Injured in an argument with a friend at school, Jung was happy that he would not go to school again, so that he could return to his inner world until he recovered. However, Jung's fainting spells worried his family a lot. Understanding his father's thought that it would be a disaster if this child was unable to work, Jung realized the seriousness of the situation and began to study. She returned to school a few weeks later and never had a fainting spell again. Thus, in his later years, he discovered his own neurosis and used the way he found himself to cope with his patients.

Jung, who was too busy with philosophy and religion in his high school years, continued his medical education in the following years at university and made his specialty in psychiatry.

Having received his medical doctorate degree, Jung began working with E. Bleuler, who first coined the term "schizophrenia" at the Burghölzi Psychiatric Hospital and is known for his work on this disorder. He developed the word association test. He later married Emma Rauschenbach in 1903. Emma was very helpful in Jung's work and learned to apply Jung's therapy method. The thoughts he expressed in his book "The Psychology of Dementia Praecox", which he wrote on schizophrenia in 1906, were not received positively like Freud's thoughts, but this is how he met Freud. Subsequently, Freud secured Jung's election as president when the International Psychoanalytical Association was founded. Freud even saw Jung as his heir. However, later on, Jung realized his disagreements with Freud and began to express them. Their relationship, which lasted 6 years until he criticizes Freud's theory in his work titled "Psychology of the Unconscious", ended in 1913 when they broke away from each other completely.

The book in which Jung tells his autobiography (Memories, Dreams, Thoughts) begins with the sentence "Life is a story in which the unconscious realizes itself."

After the death of his wife in 1955, Jung spent his last days at home with his relatives and died in the town where he was born on June 6, 1961.

REFERENCES

İnanç, B.; Yerlikaya, E., (2022), Kişilik Kuramları (Theories of Personality), (18.baskı), Pegem Akademi Yayıncılık, Ankara.

Another issue that we will discuss in this article is the relationship between Adler and Freud.

Their relationship began when Freud invited Adler and three other doctors to a discussion group. The group, which came together on the famous Wednesdays and discussed the subject of psychoanalysis, later turned into an association. Adler, on the other hand, joined this group thinking that he could discuss different points of view. He never saw Freud as a mentor. He thought that he would also contribute to psychoanalysis and that his ideas would be accepted by Freud. Adler was appointed as the head of the association in 1910, but later on, the differences of opinion between Freud and Adler began to appear and increased over time. Finally, at a meeting, Adler and Freud realized that their views were very different from each other. Later, Adler resigned from his presidency and left the association with nine members who left with him, and they founded the "Free Psychoanalysis Association". The reason they thought of this name was to prevent Freud from owning psychoanalysis alone, but later Adler chose a name that was more in line with his own views and named it "Individual Psychology".

Adler and Freud's relationship did not end only because of differences of opinion. In fact, it is clear that they are not suitable for each other in terms of their characters. In short, they don't actually like each other. So much so that when Adler passed away, he used very harsh words about Freud and openly expressed how much he disliked Freud.

For Adler, the years after leaving the association were very productive and the "Individual Psychology" association he founded also grew rapidly.

Adler married Raissa Epstein, an independent and freedom-loving woman. Like his wife, Adler is also a feminist and socialist. Raissa and Adler had four children, two of whom were psychiatrists and one chose to become an actress, and the other died while a political prisoner in the Soviet Union.

Adler, a generally healthy person (except in childhood), had a lot of concerns about the fate of his daughter who disappeared in Moscow and started to suffer from chest pains. Adler's theory continues to be popularized by a wide variety of institutions and publications today.

How much sleep is enough sleep? This question is a difficult one to answer. Most adults need 7-8 hours of sleep, but the exact duration varies from person to person. For example, babies need much more sleep, while older people usually sleep less than 7-8 hours and do not experience serious distress.

People who have persistent problems falling asleep or staying asleep have a more serious sleep disorder called ‘’Insomnia’’. On the other hand, there are many sleep aids, but taking them for a long time can cause addiction and immunity. For this reason, psychological suggestions are generally used in the treatment of insomnia. Sometimes, some lifestyle changes may be required. For example, doing sports regularly or relaxing for a while before going to bed. These can be good for insomnia patients.

At the other end of the scale is "Narcolepsy". It is a chronic disorder that manifests itself with excessive sleepiness, which is usually seen in the form of sleep attacks or short sleep periods during the day. People with narcolepsy often have a sudden and intense urge to sleep. Sometimes they go directly to RAM (the part where rapid eye movements and dreams are seen) sleep. These sleep attacks last up to 5 minutes and can begin at any time. Although the cause of narcolepsy is still being investigated, there is evidence that its origin is genetic.

A more common sleep disorder is "Sleep Apnea". People with difficulty sleep apnea are not aware of this problem. In sleep apnea, the sleeping person stops breathing at intervals of 10 seconds or more, and then the body realizes that it is not getting enough oxygen. The person wakes up and stays awake for as long as they can take a deep breath and goes back to sleep without realizing what has happened. This can be repeated many times a night. Since the person is constantly going back and forth between sleep and wakefulness, he cannot benefit from the deep stages of sleep sufficiently. Snoring can be a symptom of sleep apnea. If you wake up tired in the morning even though you think you sleep all night if you are said to snore, you may have sleep apnea, or being overweight and using alcohol may increase the likelihood of developing sleep apnea. On the other hand, sleep apnea can be easily treated.

The last sleep problem we will talk about is Sleepwalking and Sleep Talking. Like narcolepsy, these are largely due to genetic causes. It's harmless unless you're going somewhere dangerous or revealing some dark secret. In sleepwalking, people have poor coordination, but they manage not to hit objects and do not remember walking in their sleep when they wake up. Sleepwalking and talking during sleep are more common in children.

Participants accepted the experiment by knowing what experiment they were, and these participants were found through a newspaper advertisement. They were also tested to make sure they didn't have any physical or psychological problems. All of them are middle-class, college students from similar backgrounds. Eighteen students participated in the experiment and it was decided by tossing a coin which one would be the guard and which one would be the prisoner.

Zimbardo wanted this experiment to be as realistic as possible, so he had the detainees arrested on random days when they least expected them, and the arrests were faithfully arrested by the university's regional police station. After fingerprints were taken and photographs of the prison were taken, they were given prisoner uniforms. After that, the participants were placed in the artificial prison set up in the basement of Stanford University, and each inmate was given a number.

Zimbardo held a meeting with the participants who played the guards before the experiment began and warned that they could not do any physical harm to the detainees, but Zimbardo stated that they could use other methods to control the detainees. Just like the detainees, the guards were also given uniforms and truncheons. These batons will be used to threaten physical violence, not physical violence. The guards were also told that they should call the detainees not by their names, but by the numbers given to the detainees. The guards are free to do whatever it takes to maintain law and order.

The first day of the experiment passed without incident. That is, the detainees have not yet grasped the seriousness of the matter, and the guards still feel awkward when giving them orders. In the days that followed, things slowly changed. The detainees got very bored with this situation and started their first rebellion against the guards. For example, they locked themselves in their rooms. The guards accepted this as an insult to their false authority and started the fight. In response, the detainees began tearing up their numbers and hurling insults at the guards for a counter-reaction. At some point, the guards began to see the detainees as dangerous people who really needed to be controlled. After these thoughts, they went further and exhibited punitive attitudes such as stripping the detainees naked. The guards suppressed these riots and imprisoned the rebels in isolation rooms. The detainees began to deteriorate after 36 hours, and the first detainee was excluded from the experiment because of depressive symptoms and aggressive behavior. The situation started to become even more dire, for example, the detainees started a hunger strike. In response, the guards were forced to exercise until the detainees were exhausted and did not allow them to go to the toilet, forcing them to do it in buckets and not letting them empty the buckets. At the same time, the guards basically aim to turn them against each other and intimidate them.

Zimbardo also put himself in this situation by playing the prison warden. He never realized that the experiment had gotten out of control, and now on the sixth day of the experiment, his girlfriend came to visit the prison and he was so horrified by the sight that he asked Zimbardo to stop the experiment. Zimbardo saw the truth after an outsider showed him the truth and eventually decided to end the experiment early. When Zimbardo made this decision, it was the sixth day of the experiment, and half of the prisoners had a serious mental breakdown. None of the guards left the experiment early.

Marijuana is the most commonly used illicit substance in all age groups. It is reported that men are used more commonly than women in its consumption.

There are risks associated with the use of marijuana, which can be fatal. Although there are dangerous risks even when used alone, it also serves as a starting point on the road to other substance addictions.

As with many psychoactive substances, cannabis has psychological, physical and neurological effects on users.

Psychological Effects

Its effects depend on the potency of the substance and the dose taken. Cannabis users state that cannabis relaxes them, and therefore they feel much more comfortable, especially in social environments. Some emotional changes are seen with high doses of cannabis. In addition, it was stated that attention dullness, fragmented thoughts, weakening of memory and feeling that time passes more slowly. An overdose of marijuana can also have effects such as hallucinations and extreme panic. Since the effects listed here appear after a certain period of time after taking the substance, mood disorders such as depression and anxiety may occur in the person due to the insufficient amount of the substance taken (tolerance). At the same time, psychoactive substances such as cannabis can create permanent changes in the brain, create psychosis in the person with long-term use and even increase the risk of schizophrenia.

Physical Consequences

In short-term use of cannabis, effects such as redness of the eyes, itching, dry mouth, increased appetite are observed. Cannabis withdrawal symptoms include abdominal pain, bodily changes such as sweating and tremors, and stomach problems. As a result of long-term use, deterioration in the structure of the lungs, cough, chest pain, cancer, decreased fertility in women, developmental delay in pregnancy and the risk of miscarriage, low testosterone in men and decrease in sperm count can be seen. Compared to cigarettes, which is one of the most damaging substances to the lungs, marijuana has been shown to have more harmful effects than cigarettes. For example, by consuming one marijuana, the carbon dioxide of five cigarettes and the tar of four cigarettes are inhaled and ten cells connected to the air ducts are damaged (Sussman, Stacy, Dent et al., 1996).

Neurological Effects

In addition, the results of the research showed that the effect of marijuana on the brain has a negative effect on the short-term memory of the person. It can impair the cognitive functions of the person and accordingly weaken functions such as learning, memory and attention. Psychoactive substances such as cannabis in the brain can make permanent changes in the dopaminergic pathway in the brain in the long term (the cortical pathway of the dopamine neurotransmitter in the brain). Psychoactive substances taken in the brain cause deterioration in functions such as emotion regulation, impulse control and organizing thoughts and actions, which are among the higher cortical functions of the prefrontal cortex.

Treatment

Rehabilitation and drug therapy are essential in the treatment of cannabis users in terms of withdrawal symptoms caused by the substance. In addition, it should be carried out together with psychotherapy for the underlying causes of addiction and behavioral change.

References

Kring A., Johnson S., Davison G., Neale J., (2019), Anormal Psikoloji (Abnormal Psychology) (12. Basım), Nobel Akademik Yayıncılık, Ankara.