Victor, who began to be trained by Itard, was only interested in eating and sleeping. He was alert and aggressive at every moment. His senses were intact, but he was not paying attention. He could not distinguish between hot and cold; he had no hesitation in putting his hand into boiling water. The concept of the pain threshold did not seem to exist in Victor. When we looked at these features in detail, Victor had not communicated with people while living in the forest. There were only animals around. Therefore, he did not know how people of his kind behave. However, he had seen animals and copied their communication patterns and movements, so social learning had taken place. Like an animal, he focused only on something when his survival instincts kicked in. At other times, he did not need to pay attention, use his senses, and was not conditioned. While the training was going on, Victor's intelligence had been the subject of discussion. According to Pinel, who specializes in the mentally disabled and mental health, Victor was an uneducable idiot. Other experts also argued that Victor was an idiot and uneducable. But Itard had not given up. Believing in the ’Tabula Rasa' theory, Itard believed that Victor had consciousness as empty as a newborn baby, if he was trained correctly and effectively, he could improve. Over time, some improvements had begun to occur in Victor. He could distinguish between hot and cold. For example, he looked at the water temperature before going into the shower, and put on his clothes when it was cold; he got under the blanket. He also enjoyed cuddling. There had been significant increases in communication with people. He enjoys spending time with people and now he can empathize. The fact that the child's Caretaker Guerin, who puts the same number of plates on the table every day, cried when she saw the plate when her husband died, lifted the plate, and never put it down again, that is, realized that something was wrong as a result of the act of crying, made psychologists think that she could build the ability to empathize. Later, for the first time, he used one of the human ways of expressing an emotion crying. However, Victor's development speed was not at the desired level despite all this. As a result of literacy training, he gradually began to distinguish sounds that he could not distinguish at first. after 5 years of training, he could distinguish very few written words and could distinguish a few words when he heard them. But Victor still could not speak. There were meaningless sounds that he used against events. But these were no more than a few meaningless sounds that he used against every event. at the end of 6 years, the trainings were stopped. Itard had given up and now wanted to work with children he could fix.

Despite all this, Victor had opened an important door in the world of science, even though he could not completely recover on his own. He had increased the interest in the education of children with intellectual disabilities. The idea that children with mental retardation could acquire at least some basic skills had developed a little. Among all these developments, the most important was the emergence of the concept of ‘critical process’ in language development. According to this theory, it is impossible for someone who has not been exposed to language to learn a language until a certain age. Victor led a quiet life until his death at the age of 40. His story has been the subject of books and on the white screen. In short, as the wild child of Victor Aveyron, he has taken an important place in the history of psychology and linguistics.

If you want to witness Victor's story, I suggest you watch the movie about Victor's story called ‘The Wild Child’.

References:

Çelebi, H. E. (2024, Ocak 20). Aveyron'un Vahşi Çocuğu. Y'ol Psikoloji: retrieved from https://www.yolpsikoloji.com.tr/post/aveyron-un-vahşi̇ -çocuğu

Kaşikçi, E. (2021, Kasim 23). Yıllarca Ormanda Tek Başına Hayatta Kalan Çocuğun Hayatınız Boyunca Unutamayacağınız Çarpıcı Hikayesi. Web Tecno: retrieved from https://www.webtekno.com/psikoloji-tarihinin-en-ilginc-vakalarindan olan- aveyron-vahsi-cocugu-h116741.html

Social media provides an opportunity for narcissists torecreate themselves (self-regulation). Narcissistic people whoact with the motivation of being liked, accepted and have lessempathy; who are less likely to be in long-term, closerelationships, are more inclined to project themselves as someone they are not on social media platforms to increasetheir likeability. Facebook and Twitter There is a research on whether narcissistic behavior varies according to age betweenFacebook and Twitter. Dec. According to this study, narcissistic college students use Twitter more to reflect theirnarcissistic motives, while narcissistic adults use Facebook more. In addition, the connection of time spent on the siteswith age and narcissism has also been established. Althoughnarcissistic university students prefer Twitter more to reflecttheir narcissistic motives, they spend more time on Facebook than narcissistic adults. To reflect their own narcissisticmotives, they use themselves to collect information rather thanshare it. There is no Decoupling between narcissism and time spent on Twitter. Because, as another study suggests, Twittercan also be used only for information collection purposes.

Facebook and Twitter Decouple Another reason for thedifference between Facebook and Twitter is that peoplecommunicate more with their friends on Facebook, whilepeople on Twitter can gain a more general audience that theydon't know as followers. Therefore, in this study, it was foundthat Twitter meets the popularity motive of narcissism more. As the popularity of the narcissistic person on the social mediaplatform increases, the state of being positive also increases, but the decline in popularity has the opposite effect. Since an increase in popularity will increase the narcissistic person'ssense of social acceptance, the person's satisfaction level willalso increase due to this. Since a decrease in popularity willthreaten the narcissistic person's ego with social rejection, theperson feels in danger and the negative mood state increases.

The Decoupling Between Narcissism and Instagram Use

It is observed that people who outweigh narcissisticcharacteristics are more active on social media platformscompared to others. Instagram, on the other hand, is the mostwidely used social media platform today, which makes it theeasiest to exhibit a person's self among these platformsthrough photos and videos.Dec. A study conducted by JangHo Moon et al. found that narcissistic people share their ownphotos on Instagram more, change their profile photos moreoften, and pay more attention to attractiveness in these photos. Although it was found in this study that narcissism waspositively related to the time spent on Instagram and thefrequency of changing profile photos, no valid relationshipwas found between the number of followers, the number of followers and the frequency of sharing photos. Dec.

Another study conducted by Patrick Sheldon found that one of the reasons why narcissistic people like or comment on photosof friends may be the reason for increasing their visibility andtherefore popularity by the people who own the photo.

The Connection of Social Media Usage Time withNarcissism

Narcissistic people spend more time on social media toolsthan people who are less narcissistic and use them more toshow themselves and prove themselves. It is also a subject of research whether social media increases the narcissism of a person who was not a narcissist before using social media.

Narcissism and the Neurological Dimension of SocialMedia Use

If the effect of social media on narcissistic attitudes is considered from a neurological point of view, the prefrontalcortex perceives feedback such as likes, comments as compliments, compliments, rewards. Therefore, the reward-seeking movement takes place. Some hormones are alsosecreted according to the nature of the feedback. For example, dopamine is secreted in positive feedback, while GABA, which also plays a role in anxiety, is secreted in negativefeedback. Negative feedback threatens the ego of thenarcissistic individual and creates a fear of social rejection.

REFERENCES:

Buffardi LE, Campbell WK. Narcissism and socialnetworking web sites. Personality and Social PsychologyBulletin Vol. 34 No. 10, October 2008 1303-1314.

Jabeen F, Gerritsen C, Treur J. Narcissism and fame: a complex network model for the adaptive interaction of digitalnarcissism and online popularity. Network Science (2020) 5:84.

James C, Davis K, Charmaraman L, Konrath S, Slovak P, Weinstein E, Yarosh L. Digital life and youth well-being, social connectedness, empathy, and narcissism. PediatricsVolume 140, number S2, November 2017:e20161758.

Moon JH, Lee E, Lee JA, Choi TR, Sung Y. The role of narcissism in self-promotion on instagram. Elsevier, Personality and Individual Differences 101 (2016) 22–25.

Panek ET, Nardis Y, Konrath S. Mirror or Megaphone?: How relationships between narcissism and social networking site use differ on Facebook and Twitter. Elsevier, Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 2004–2012.

Sheldon P. (2015). In Self-monitoring and narcissism aspredictors of sharing Facebook photographs. Presented at thesouthern states communication association conference, Tampa, FL.

Sheldon P, Bryant K. Instagram: motives for its use andrelationship to narcissism and contextual age. Elsevier, Computers in Human Behavior 58 (2016) 89e97.

-Mark Wolynn, It Didn't Start with You.

What is Trauma?

Traumatic experiences are the experiences that an individual encounters in the natural course of life and that create psychological difficulties and leave a mark on the individual by disabling the individual's coping strategies. These experiences can cause mental symptoms such as depression, anxiety and physical symptoms such as palpitations and tremors in the individual. Depending on the destructiveness of the traumatic experience and the extent to which it affects the individual, it can also be passed on to subsequent generations. There are also psychological and biological approaches to this transfer of trauma.

Transmission of Trauma from Generation to Generation

Intergenerational trauma transfer covers the transfer of individual and social traumas to subsequent generations physically and spiritually. Although social traumas affect a wider audience, they can be more easily investigated. The first studies on the intergenerational transmission of trauma began with studies on the children of victims of genocide and war. Dec. The study data on the transmission of individual traumas are more limited than the data of social trauma studies. While studies have been able to provide information about how individuals who have experienced social traumas such as genocide can transmit this trauma to their children and even grandchildren and how it happened, information about how individual traumas such as harassment can be transmitted to subsequent generations is quite limited.

Transmission of Trauma Through Genes

Although biological approaches are still being discussed, the data we have have shown that trauma can also be transmitted through genes. These traumas and their effects can also be epigenetically inherited to future generations. The concept of epigenetic change describes the activation of genes that are not normally active as a result of various conditions. From this point of view, trauma transmitted to a child through genes can be activated as a result of the environment in which he grew up and the conditions to which he was exposed. Some studies show that the children of parents who are exposed to intense stress during pregnancy and have post-traumatic stress disorder are also born more prone to stress than other children. As a result, we can understand that the likelihood of developing trauma is also increasing.

In a study conducted on people who were tortured during World War II, were in concentration camps or witnessed torture, a significant difference was observed between the genes of the children of genocide survivors and the genes of the children of people who had never been exposed to trauma. Dec. According to the researchers, this genetic change occurred due to the severe trauma experienced by the parents.

In addition, recent research has shown that coping mechanisms are also transmitted to generations through genes. In individuals whose family has experienced famine, earthquake, flood or war, children's stress and coping strategies are transferred. It seems that the children of parents who cope with their traumas in a healthy way also have a higher capacity to cope with stress and process the situation when faced with any situation.

Transferring Trauma through Social Learning

People who have experienced trauma develop some reactions and coping strategies to situations and individuals as a result of their experiences. They also reflect these reactions and strategies they develop when they become parents to the relationships they establish with their children and their approaches to them. It is observed that children who follow the example of their parents, identify with them and live within the rules set by them imitate their behavioral patterns as a result of this situation; internalize their reactions and strategies. It is observed that children of parents with traumatic experiences develop a type of attachment called traumatic attachment. Children who grow up with overly strict, perfectionist attitudes that parents develop as a result of negative experiences may also internalize these attitudes or perform the opposite avoidance. For example, the mother's fear of the dark eventually becomes the child's fear as a result of observing the mother and the mother's attitudes. Thus, she internalizes the trauma of the mother. In addition to all these, clearly and clearly transferring the trauma experienced by the family to the child without filtering can also reveal trauma in the child.

If we take it in general, the factors affecting the transmission of trauma are as follows:

• The way parents raise their children

* The relationship established Decoupled between parent and child

• The way parents process trauma to children

• How children will experience the transmitted trauma

If you want to get more detailed information about this topic, I recommend reading the book ‘It Didn't Start with You’ written by Mark Wolly.

REFERENCES

Çelik, C. (2022, Agustos 22). Kuşaklar Arası Travma Aktarımı. Cemil Çelik: https://www.cemilcelik.com.tr/kusaklar-arasi-travma-aktarimi/ adresinden alındı

Karatay, G. (2020). Tarihsel/Toplumsal Travmalar ve Kuşaklararası Aktarımı Biçimleri Üzerine. Süreli Tıp Eğitimi Dergisi,29, 373-379. doi: 10.17942/sted.767797

Mona Psikoloji. (2020, Kasım 10). Travmanın Kuşaklararası Aktarımı. Mona Psikoloji: https://www.monapsikoloji.com/travmanin-kusaklararasi-aktarimi/ 

Klein settled in Budapest after her marriage. This city became the turning point of his life because it was here that he met Ferenczi, who was one of Freud's close circle. Ferenczi, known as the father of psychoanalysis, initially met with Klein for therapeutic purposes, and then allowed Klein to move his interest in psychology beyond a hobby. Ferenczi suggested that Klein analyze his own children, Klein definitely made an introduction to psychoanalysis with this suggestion. Later, he had the opportunity to listen to Freud in Budapest and wrote his first article on child case analysis. Melanie Klein was accepted as a member of the Psychoanalysis Association. He presented his own son Erich's analysis under a different name. He attracted the attention of Ernest Jones with his congresses and activities and moved to London with his invitation.

Klein is referred to as the founder of the theory of object relations. In Klein's theory, there is an association from the moment the child is born, and the importance of the object is in question. What Klein based on was the relationship between the mother's breast and the child. According to Klein, the baby creates its own reality at first. He cannot perceive reality as adults perceive it, and his first reality is completely imaginary. This imaginary object is the mother's breast. The first internal object with which the baby is associated establishes its relationship with the mother's breast. The ego exists from the moment the child is born and is subjected to development. Klein emphasizes the importance of the first 4-6 months after childbirth. Due to the inability of the child to express his own associations, the free play technique is used. He leaves the game to the child and the child chooses the toy. He plays effectively with the child, but the child also positions himself.

The Concept of Good Breast- Bad Breast
According to Klein, the first object that the baby associates with is the mother's breast. This first relationship determines how their future relationship will be shaped. Junky breasts are experienced by the baby as an object that does not give pleasure, distracts from pleasure. Junky breasts are experienced by the baby as an object that does not give pleasure. The baby feels anger towards this object that does not provide him with satisfaction. A good breast, on the other hand, is experienced as an object that feeds the baby and meets its needs. The baby sees a good breast as a protector and wants to protect it himself. A bad breast, on the other hand, raises the issues of abandonment of the baby, being left alone. The baby feels the desire to destroy, destroy the bad breast. The baby, who experiences the breast as such a rich, nutritious, perceives it as a powerful object. And the bad breast thinks that he is saving the milk for himself. The baby feels “envy” towards the bad breast and wants to be destructive towards the breast. Because according to the baby, the bad breast object keeps its satiety to itself and leaves the baby hungry. Babies feel dependent on their mother to meet their needs. She also meets her security needs through her mother. Over time, the baby realizes that mom is an object that communicates with dad, other siblings, the environment, and that she is not the only person he is interested in. The division of interests and resources reveals a feeling of “jealousy” in the baby.

The concept of "location"
Klein says that according to the object relations theory, infancy was spent in paranoid schizoid and depressive positions. These locations have their own characteristics, defense mechanisms and internal object relationships. The position gained does not stay forever, returns can be experienced.

Paranoid-Schizoid Position: As soon as the baby is born, he experiences himself with evil and destructive objects. This is not a tolerable situation. It is more tolerable to have these evil objects outside than to have evil objects inside oneself, and therefore, in order to get rid of baby anxiety, it tries to remove the aggression and bad sides of itself that it does not want inside itself by projecting them onto the breast.

Depressed Position: In this position, the baby now begins to distinguish what is his own dream, what is reality, and to see the mother as a whole. The paranoid-schizoid position decreases. He experiences the mother as an object who both loves and deprives himself of the breast. The baby begins to feel guilty in a depressed position because of the damage he has caused to the good breast. Because this object that he damaged is now both a good and an evil object.

Only the therapist and child play in the room for the first five sessions. Other therapists and parents also watch their games through the glass or the camera. In later sessions, the parent is also involved in the games. Then, the session is Decoupled between parent and child with therapist observation and accompaniment. During the first sessions in which the parent is involved, the therapist plays an active role in facilitating the interaction between the child and the parent. These sessions are then monitored and talked to the parent with a camera, situations where the parent disrupts the interaction and is forced are transferred to the child by the therapist, and new skills are shown to the parent by creating awareness.

 Theraplay is focused on four key elements:

1. Structure

This element includes security, organization, and regulation. The parent sets boundaries, sets body boundaries, and keeps the child safe. For example; Measuring children's height, arm, leg, hand, and ear length. Measuring how far it will jump. To mummify the child by wrapping toilet paper around his body and then to make the child get rid of it.

 2. Commitment

It involves attachment, acceptance, and expanding positive emotions. The parent provides a strong bond, a shared experience of joy. For example; stick a colored paste on your nose, and ask the child to remove it.

 3. Feeding

It involves editing and seeing value. Parents respond with a moderate, gentle, calming approach. For example, when feeding a child fruit or pudding, embrace the child with care. Paint each other's faces, and add a word to praise each place you paint.

 4. Struggle

The competition includes self-confidence and supporting exploration. The parent supports the child to take risks, strive, explore, and master their skills. For example; both the child and you, hold a pillow in front of you, and blow the feather toy over this pillow. Let the child also try to hold it with his pillow.

Theraplay can be applied to children between the ages of 2-12. It is a play therapy used in children who have difficulty in social relationships, introversion, behavioral problems, depression, shyness, attachment problems, confrontational or anger attacks, that is, experience emotional difficulties. It is also effective in children with autism spectrum disorder, developmental delay, and physical difficulties.

You can get more detailed information from the Theraplay Game and Family Therapy Association, established in Turkey in 2019 for the dissemination and development of game and family therapies and theraplay therapy.

Usually, these people have a psychological problem, and this condition manifests itself through physical symptoms. Physically symptom disorder, manifests itself by experiencing physical symptoms that affect a person's life, although there is no medical explanation for the physical symptoms. There are some distortions in the emotions, thoughts, and behaviors of individuals related to the physical symptoms they experience. For example, these people interpret any physical symptoms as having a very serious illness, often feel concerns for their health, a constantly go to different doctors and look for signs of physical discomfort in their body. They spend a significant and constant level of time and energy on their bodily symptoms. The vast majority of their lives continue in this way. This condition reduces the satisfaction in their lives, causes disruptions in daily life functions, and causes them to experience intense stress. Individuals who avoid daily activities and social relationships are intensely interested in their isolation and physical complaints.

What are the Common Physical Symptoms of Physical Symptom Disorder?

These symptoms are usually related to chronic pain in areas such as back pain, neck, abdomen, face, head, muscles, and excretory system, where it is difficult to measure and evaluate pain. Nov. Along with these; stomach cramps, constipation, fatigue, heart palpitations, dry mouth, difficulty breathing, tingling, and numbness in the body also manifest themselves as intense menstrual pains in women. 

These symptoms may vary at various times and periods. For example, these symptoms begin in adolescence or early adulthood, worsen during stress, may ease when stress decreases, or may be replaced by another symptom. A young girl who feels intense pains at the beginning of her menstrual period may experience relief of this pain later on and instead experience this condition with a different complaint, such as a chronic headache or intense back and chest pain. 

Physical Symptom Disorder / DSM-5 Diagnostic Criteria

A. If there are somatic symptoms that cause significant disruptions in the person's daily living activities,

B. 1., 2. and 3. if there is the presence of at least one substance related to thoughts, feelings, behaviors, or health-related to the somatic symptoms described in the substance

 1. The presence of constant and irrational thoughts about the severity of symptoms,

2. The presence of a consistently high level of concerns about health and symptoms,

3. The appearance of excessive expenditure of time and energy on the symptom and anxiety in question.

C. Although any bodily symptoms are not present at any time, the state of being symptomatic usually persists for more than 6 months.

If the somatic symptoms are painful, painful, severe symptoms cause significant deterioration, and a continuous period of at least 6 months prevails Oct continuously; one of the conditions in criterion B is ice; at a mild level, if there are two or more, at a moderate level, if more than one somatic complaint appears as severe, severe bodily symptom disorder can be mentioned.

RESEARCH CORNER

• It should be known that these people are not in a state of simulation (making themselves look sick). In other words, they do not consciously and willingly behave as if they are sick. They are experiencing the physical complaints they are talking about.
• As a result of the research conducted, it has been found that Physical Symptom Disorder is more common in women than in men.
• It is estimated that 5-7% of primary health care patients and about 20% of internal medicine patients have physical symptom disorders.
• Physical symptoms are known to frequently affect the gastrointestinal, cardiorrhea, and musculoskeletal systems.
• Associated psychological problems such as anxiety, depression, a history of trauma, or challenging life events are common under this condition, but this diagnosis can be made when the symptoms are not fully explained by other medical or mental disorders.
• For treatment, Cognitive Behavioral therapy is the most commonly used approach. Detailed and accurate information about the complaints is given to the person and studies are carried out on their cognitive distortions. It is studied on changing the thoughts and behaviors that disrupt the functionality of the individual.
• Relaxation techniques, biofeedback (reorganization of some physiological functions that are under our control in our body accompanied by instantaneous data), and hypnosis are used to try to gain control over physical experiences with methods such as.

References

S. Kerim.(2022). Disosiyatif Bozukluklar ve Bedensel Belirti Bozuklukları Tuna E. ve Ö. Öncül Demir (ed.) DSM-5’ E Göre Anormal psikoloji. (2;268,269- 279).Nobel Yayıncılık.

The Social Effects of War

Wars have a direct and profound impact on the social and economic structures of societies. One of the most obvious effects of wars on societies is the losses that occur due to war. These losses carry a great burden emotionally and psychologically. Families suffer through the loss of loved ones, which affects the mood of the community. Wars also have an impact on social hierarchy and power dynamics. The winners and losers of the war can be ranked at the top or bottom of society. This determines the social class differences. For example, people on the losing side of the war may experience a social decline. This can trigger social unrest and even revolutions.

Psychological Effects of War

“The reality of psychological trauma has once again challenged public consciousness with the devastation of World War I. Over eight million people have died in four years in this long war of attrition. By the time the massacre ended, four European empires had been destroyed and many of the creeds on which Western civilization was based had been shattered.” There was also an individual psychological dimension to the destruction experienced especially after World War I. According to the traditional understanding, a soldier, that is, a man, should be proud of the war and should not have any emotional reactions. Through this understanding, discourses were made about soldiers who experienced traumatic neurosis after World War I in the form of “men who show feminine and passive homosexual tendencies”. There are claims that the symptoms of post-war mental Decay were ignored by attributing them to physical causes. This kind of ignored brutality of soldiers who have been exposed to the brutality of war can also be seen as a separate traumatic phenomenon for that period after the war. Fortunately, in the following years, after the post-war processes, steps have been taken to explain the causes of war-related psychopathology.

As a direct result of the war, stress disorders as a result of trauma are common among soldiers and the civilian population. The violence of war, the threat of death, the loss of friends, and other traumatic experiences can seriously affect a person's mental health. Symptoms include recurring nightmares, sudden episodes of fear, a constant feeling of danger, and constant reenactment of traumatic memories in the mind. Traumatic experiences during or after the war can trigger deep depression in people. The devastating effects of war can lead people to lose motivation for life and despair. The constant danger and uncertainty of war can create a constant feeling of anxiety in people. This can lead to anxiety disorders and negatively affect people's daily lives. The intense violence of war can cause soldiers and civilians to experience anger and violence control problems. This can lead to social problems such as domestic violence. As a result of war experiences, people may feel lonely. They may also be separated from their communities, which can lead to social isolation. War can affect children in a particularly traumatic way. The violence experienced during the war can lead to psychological problems such as nightmares, anxiety, and fear in children. It should also be remembered that war can hinder children's educational opportunities. After the war, it can be difficult for people affected to reintegrate into their communities. This can lead to post-traumatic community integration problems. After the war, it can be difficult for people affected to reintegrate into their communities. Post-war community integration problems can prevent people from processing their traumatic experiences and adapting to their societies.

The psychological effects of war can vary depending on the experiences of individuals, personal resilience, and social support systems. Therefore, psychological help and support are important to cope with the psychological effects of war. In addition, preventing war and providing social support after war can help reduce the psychological effects of war.

However, taking the in-depth examination of the causes of their problems out of the process significantly reduces the time required for consultation. In other words, when solutions are focused, consultation sessions end in less time. Behavior is more in the foreground than insight.

If we look at it from the consultant's perspective, consultants who adopt a solution-oriented approach take care to use their clients' words, so it becomes even easier for clients to understand the process. In this way, an ideal environment is created for both sides during the consultation process.

From the client's point of view, this process will help the client determine his own goals. The wishes of the client, not the consultant, are important, and clients are seen as experts who know themselves best. This situation brings with it the belief, trust, and respect for the client.

Solution-oriented therapy is based on principles such as;

“If it's not broken, don't fix it.”,

“Do more if it works.”,

“If it's not working, do something different.”,

“Small steps can lead to big changes.“,

"No problem always exists; there are always times when there is no problem, exceptions that can be taken advantage of.”,

“The future is both creatable and reconcilable." (De Shazer and Dolan, 2012).

Based on this, solving problems healthily as soon as possible instead of detailing them in depth is the essence of solution-oriented therapy, and many of the techniques used in therapy are attractive to clients because they focus people on the goal and the positive.

What is a Mood Disorder?
As is known, the concept of mood refers to the average state of emotions over a certain period of time. Mood disorders are psychological disorders defined by emotional, cognitive, behavioral, and somatic symptoms. (Gurcan Yildirim D. 2022, p.135.). This disorder can also be expressed as a deviation of emotional states from the normal. For example, one of the symptoms of this disorder is that an individual has stressful, depressive thoughts when there is no adverse situation in his life, or vice versa, an individual is full of energy and happy when there is no situation in which to be overly optimistic.

Bipolar Disorder
Bipolar disorder is known as a mental health disorder that changes with extreme fluctuations in emotional states. The most common feature of bipolar disorder is that both depressive and manic or hypomanic episodes occur together. (Gurcan Yildirim D. 2022, p.125). The differences between bipolar disorders are determined according to the characteristics of manic symptoms, that is, the severity and duration of the manic symptom help determine the category of bipolar disorder.

WHAT ARE THE DSM-5 DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA FOR MANIC AND HYPOMANIC EPISODES?

Manic Episode Diagnostic Criteria

• Symptoms should be seen for at least a week.
• A disorder in an individual's mood leads to a significant deterioration in social and occupational functioning.
• A person with a manic episode may need to undergo inpatient treatment in a hospital.

Hypomanic Episode Diagnostic Criteria

• Symptoms should be seen Decently for at least 4 consecutive days.
• The disorder in the individual's mood is not at a level that will lead to a deterioration in social and occupational functioning.
• This disorder is not severe enough to require hospital treatment.

Symptoms
1. The appearance of increased self-confidence or grandiosity in the individual.
2. The manifestation of a decreased need for sleep.
3. Experiencing an increase in speech.
4. The appearance of flights in thoughts.
5. The individual's experience of distraction.
6. Experiencing increases in goal-oriented behaviors or psychomotor agitation.
7. The person's participation in activities that will have negative consequences. For example, careless driving, and spending a large amount of money on gambling.

o In order for a person to be diagnosed with bipolar disorder, at least 3 of the symptoms must be seen and differ markedly from their usual behavior (Gürcan Yildirim D. 2022, p.126).

Types of Bipolar Disorder
1. Bipolar I Disorder
A person must have had a manic episode at least once in his past life to receive this diagnosis. There are no criteria other than this.

2. Bipolar II Disorder
For a person to receive this diagnosis, he must have experienced a major depressive episode at least once in the past, and, at the same time, he must have experienced a hypomanic episode. An important criterion for this diagnosis is that there should be no manicure episodes in the person's past life.

3. Cyclothymic (Cyclical) Disorder
If this disorder is compared to other bipolar disorders, it manifests itself in a more chronic but less severe way than other disorders. For the diagnosis, it is expected that the person has been experiencing hypomanic and depressive episodes for at least two years. The important point here is that these periods are not severe enough to meet the diagnostic criteria of mania, hypomania, or major depression. The main feature of what is known as a cyclical disorder is the transitions that are constantly being experienced between Deceptive and elevated moods.

Treatment of Bipolar Disorders
There are treatments in both biological and psychological fields. The most commonly used drug in biological treatments is lithium, which helps to regulate mood fluctuations. It is known to regulate depressive and manic symptoms. However, medications such as emotion-regulating drugs, anticonvulsants, antipsychotics, and antidepressants are also used.
In psychological treatments, it is known that the provision of psychoeducation on the subject is of great importance and helps biological treatment. Along with this, the provision of family education also helps the situation.
Finally, interpersonal social rhythm therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy are also used in treatment.

RECOMMENDATIONS
In order to better understand the subject, the life and work of Kay Redfield Jamison, who has completed important studies on bipolar disorder and has also been diagnosed with bipolar disorder, can be reviewed.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
D. Gürcan Yıldırım.(2022). Duygudurum Bozuklukları. Tuna E. ve Ö. Öncül Demir (ed.) DSM-5’ E Göre Anormal psikoloji. (2;102-138). Nobel Yayın Evi.

HOW ARE THE SCHEMES OCCUR?
 One of the most important feelings for babies is a sense of security. In order for them to see the world as a reliable place, their needs must be met consistently. Babies' parents' who feel safe are emotionally and physically approachable. They're always there. The baby is not neglected, or abandoned, and gets love. Abandonment schema, skepticism schema, and abuse schema may arise in a child who does not get a basic sense of security (Young & Klosko, 2011, p. 46 48). They think that they will be abandoned at any moment, that others will abuse them, that everyone is biding their time to do something behind their back. It's hard for them to trust someone.

 Babies who feel safe connect safely. Bowlby (1969) defined attachment as feeling a closeness to a person and maintaining it (Demirkan, 2006). Children who are securely connected adapt well. An emotional withdrawal scheme and a social isolation scheme may occur in a child who cannot connect securely (Young & Klosko, 2011 p. 48-49). In their adult life, they feel that no one will truly love them and that they cannot belong anywhere.

 Children need autonomy in order to establish a separate world from their parents and to have an identity. They should take enough responsibility, and be supported in doing it alone. In this regard, unsupported children may have a dependency scheme and a resilience scheme (Young & Klosko, 2011 p. 49-50) Even when they become an adult, they have difficulty separating from their families financially and spiritually. They think that they cannot face the difficulties of life alone. They are always looking for people who will take care of them and protect them.

 Besides autonomy, a sense of self-confidence is also important. Children who cannot be raised with self-confidence may have imperfection and failure schemes (Young & Klosko, 2011 p. 51-52). Even if everything in your life goes regularly (a regular job, a good relationship, a good social environment, etc.) deep down, they still feel imperfect. ’There's always something missing," they think. On the contrary, these people may not have developed some skills because they grew up insecure. As a result, they may actually be failing.

 Children need to express themselves and show their feelings. They should know that their own needs are just as important as others. Children who grow up without being encouraged to express themselves may have a subordination scheme and a high standards scheme (Young & Klosko, 2011 p. 52-54). Some people can't make decisions on their own, while others want to be very successful at everything. Their standards are very high. 

 In addition to knowing their own needs, children also need realistic boundaries to be set by their parents. While parents support when it comes to the place, when it comes to the place, they should put limits on some things. Children who grow up with parents who cannot set realistic boundaries may have an entitlement scheme (Young & Klosko, 2011 p. 54-56). Although the origins of schemes differ from person to person, their common aspect is that they harm the individual (Bintaş Zörer, 2015).

THE DIFFICULTY OF REPETITION
 Schemes trigger our emotions, they affect our relationships. Even if we don't realize it sometimes, they are always there somewhere in our lives. At the point when we say ‘Something is always missing’ when our life is going well, when our life is not going well, ‘Why is this happening?‘ at the point when we say and we constantly establish relationships with people in the same style, when we experience events in the same style, "Why do the same things always find me, the same people all the time?’ at the point we said, the diagrams appear before us.

 As a child, we were neglected, abandoned, insufficiently loved, harassed, found defective, and criticized. When we become adults, we are with people who neglect, abandon, do not love us enough, harass and criticize us. We see these repetitions in our romantic relationships, in our business lives, and in our friendship relationships. Freud called this the "repetition compulsion". We make ourselves experience the pain of our childhood over and over again. For example, people with self-neglecting parents marry someone who neglects themselves. Children whose parents do not show them enough love feel attracted to partners who do not show their love in adulthood.

 When we have already experienced the pain of this in childhood, why do we repeat it in our adult life? Psychoanalyst Steven Cooper (2015) explains the reason for repetition compulsion by likening the place where the incident occurred to a crime scene. According to Cooper (2015), a person tries to solve the pain by going to the same scene and experiencing it over and over again. According to the schema approach, the emotions that trigger the schema are familiar emotions. It makes us feel at home. They're comfortable. We don't need to leave our comfort zone. There is no uncertainty, they provide a sense of control. Even if it hurts, it's familiar. This is how we learn about the world. Although abused children label people as ‘unreliable’, they still choose unreliable people in their life. Because this is what they have learned and believe. To give up our belief in the scheme means also to give up our belief that we know what the world is like. In a way, if we give up this belief, we think that we will fall into uncertainty, thinking that we will not know the world. No matter how much it hurts, we don't do it.

 Our inherent trust in the schemas provides us with a sense of consistency. This feeling of consistency is part of the human motive. That is why it is difficult to change the schemes. Although it is difficult, it is not impossible. The first step to change is to understand it. ‘What is my thought that makes me become like this? Why do I think like this, what can I do not think like this?" with questions such as " the first step to understanding our scheme can be taken.

Bibliography

• Cooper, S.H. (2015). Reflections on the Analyst’s “Good Enough” Capacity to Bear Dissappointment with Special Attention to Repetition. Journal of the American Psy. Ass. 63 (6), 1193-1213.
• Demirkan, S. (2006) Özel Sektördeki Yöneticilerin ve Çalışanların Bağlanma Stilleri, Kontrol Odağı, İş Doyumu ve Beş Faktör Kişilik Özelliklerinin Araştırılması. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi,Ankara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü.
• Young, J. E. & Klosko J. S. (2011). Hayatı yeniden keşfedin. İstanbul: Psikonet Yayınevi
• Zörer, P. B. (2015). Bağlanma kuramı perspektifinden sosyal kaygı: Erken dönem uyumsuz şemalar ve reddedilme duyarlılığının rolü. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. Uludağ Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü.

TAGS
Country: USA
Year of construction: 2017
Genre: Drama
Duration: 1s 47min
Directed by: Marti Noxon
Starring: Lily Collins, Keanu Reeves, Alex Sharp, Liana Libertino, Lili Taylor, Brooke Smith

REVIEW
 The main character of the film, Ellen, is an individual suffering from anorexia nervosa disorder who has lost the will to live and is resistant to treatment despite being in an extremely unhealthy state. Of course, before we start reviewing the film, let's briefly talk about what anorexia nervosa is. Anorexia is an eating disorder characterized by abnormally low body weight and body perception disorder, where individuals have an abnormally low body weight by keeping away themselves from food due to their intense fear of gaining weight.

The diagnostic criteria for anorexia nervosa published in the DSM 5 handbook are:
A. Anorexia restricts energy intake according to the needs of individuals. It leads to noticeably low body weight in terms of an individual's age, gender, developmental path, and body health.
B. Persons who have anorexia are very afraid of body weight gain or getting fat, and although extremely noticeable at low body weight, engage in restriction, removal, or compensatory behaviors that make it difficult to increase body weight.
C. There is a disorder related to how an individual perceives body weight or shape, the individual attaches undue importance to body weight and shape when evaluating themselves and they never understand the importance of low body weight at that time.

 If we start to review the film in this context, Ellen is a typical anorexic individual with unusual weakness, bones that have become obvious due to this weakness, and hair that her body produces to warm itself. Ellen was restricting her eating behavior to avoid gaining weight, counting the calories of her meals, and doing compensatory behaviors by doing exercises that were heavy on her body to burn the nutrients she ate. According to Ellen, her weight was not at an unhealthy level, and even thanks to this weakness, she would live longer. Ellen's these sentences are an indication that her body perception is deteriorating. Her body perception was so distorted that she did not realize that her weakness was leading her step by step to the inevitable end, death. In the following scenes, Ellen meets with Doctor Beckham at the urging of her family. Ellen, who is seeing Beckham, agrees to treatment in a far-fetched way and starts living in the same house with other people suffering from eating disorders. Luke, who introduced the house when he entered the therapy house, describes the dining room as a ‘torture chamber’ and shows the meaning of eating for anorexic individuals. Food was just calories for them, and eating was torture for them. Ellen was starting to enjoy life as she spent time with Luke and other individuals with whom she became close at the therapy house. Luke wanted to heal for a purpose. But Ellen had no purpose. Therefore, she also had no motivation for recovery. At this point, we can see how important motivation and desire are in the treatment of psychological disorders. Throughout the film, we see the difficulties and struggles experienced by Ellen and other individuals with an eating disorder. So what were the underlying causes of these disorders? Why are individuals able to control eating behavior, which is one of our most basic needs, so much? Eating disorders are disorders that have both physical and psychological aspects. Our emotions, thoughts, and experiences in everyday life can affect our mental health and, indirectly, our physical health. From this point of view, anorexia nervosa is based on the individual's feelings and problems, while the body is weakened by the inability to get the nutrients it needs, and this weakness becomes fatal day by day. When we get down to Ellen's mood and family relationships, we can see that she has problematic family relationships. Considering that her mother has postpartum depression and mood disorders, Ellen's mother does not want to live with her daughter due to the problems she experienced in adolescence, and her father is almost never in her daughter's life, it can be assumed that Ellen cannot establish a secure connection with her family and experiences loneliness. Also, the divorce of her parents and the fact that her mother was homosexual were traumatic events in Ellen's childhood. Ellen was a girl who was not noticed by her own family, unseen, and also aware of it. This realization had driven her to despair about her relationship with her parents, especially with her father. Ellen's indirect damage to her body by starving may perhaps be a result of her desire to be noticed by her family, to receive attention, and even to feel superfluous in the world. It is also extremely possible that she is expressing her anger at his family and unhappiness by harming her body. The scene in which her mother feeds Ellen, which is one of the most vital scenes of the film, actually draws attention to the bond that Ellen must have formed with her mother during the oral period. Looking at it from the point of view of a psychology student, frankly, I would have liked to have included more of Ellen's background and thoughts in the film.

 Maybe then we could have learned more clearly from Ellen's perspective what brought Ellen to this point.

 If we examine the film as a whole, it was an extremely successful film about eating disorders, the basis of these disorders, and the difficulty of treatment processes. It was also extremely valuable for the film to raise awareness and raise awareness about these disorders, which are ignored and underestimated by society. At the end of the film, we do not see Ellen in a healed state. Ellen returned to the boarding house with greater determination and desire than before. Ellen is now eager and determined to get well. From here, we can understand that the treatment of psychological disorders is a difficult path that requires patience and determination. The important thing is to believe in the light at the end of the path and the desire for that light.

 If you would like to witness Ellen's journey and the cruel effects of anorexia nervosa, I strongly recommend that you give the film a chance.

Bibliography

• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mentaldisorders (5th ed.). WashingtonDC: Author.
• CİMELİ.E.(2020), Film Analizi: Kemiklerine Kadar (To the Bone)11 Eylül 2023 https://www.monapsikoloji.com/

The Theory of Cognitive DevelopmentIn Piaget's theory, Adaptation, Regulation, Adaptation, and Assimilation are the basic concepts.
According to Piaget, all living things pass through the processes of regulation and adaptation by inheritance. The living creature organizes its actions and all its thoughts into groups. In adaptation, the living creature experiences the concepts of adaptation and assimilation: schemes are rearranged with each freshly learned knowledge and experience, this is also called assimilation, if new schemes are created with each freshly learned knowledge and experience, this is also called compliance. Cognitive categories that help a person organize and interpret the information they have acquired in their own way are called schemas. In light of all this, according to Piaget, the system of thought and logic in adulthood and the system of thought and logic in childhood are very different from each other. Piaget has divided the Theory of Cognitive Development into four periods:

1. Sensory Motor Period (0-2 years):
It is the first stage of cognitive development. Piaget argued that babies learn and experience every stimulus in the external environment with their motor skills and senses. The foundation of the later stages of development is laid here, this stage lasts until the baby's language acquisition.

2. The Period before the Procedure (3-7 years):
It is Piaget's concept of ‘Object Permanence‘ or ‘Object Continuity’ that enables the transition from the sensory-motor period to this period. In the case of eliminating any object, the condition in which the object can detect the presence of the object even if the creature is not in the field of view is called object permanence. During this period, Piaget emphasized the child's mental limitations rather than his actions. Since the child cannot perform any action or process during this period, this period has been called the Pre-Process Period. Piaget observed that children are now able to embody knowledge thanks to the language acquired during this period. For example, a child can make bean grains in the water look like fish and make them float. Piaget has examined that the games performed in this way contribute to the strengthening of the child's schemas and contribute greatly to cognitive development. Based on this refinement, he has gained the 'egocentric (egocentric)’ point of view.

This period has been studied in two subgroups within itself:
A) Symbolic Function: It is a subgroup with children between the ages of 2 and 4. It is the lower stage in which the child symbolizes them by ascribing animate features to inanimate objects, and this condition is called animism.
B) Intuitive Thinking: It covers the age range from 4 to 7 years, during this period, children focus on a single feature of any object, so they very often experience a state of centration or focused interest, or they cannot Decipher that the amounts of liquid in two different containers shown are equal, so they cannot acquire the ’conservation property’. This feature is acquired during the Concrete Transactions Period.

3. Concrete Transactions Period (7-12 Years Old):
Children starting school during this period gain the principle of protection that they could not grasp in the previous period during this period. In this way, they can make sense of and solve problems related to concrete issues. Inductive reasoning can be used by taking advantage of all the experiences acquired up to this period. During this period, the child understands that a messy room can become obsolete when it is collected, and he can perceive that a broken vase cannot be the same as before.

4. Abstract Transactions Period (over 12 years):
It is the last period in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, during which the behaviors and thoughts of adolescents, not children, were studied. Abstract information is understood without having concrete information, and the problem can be solved by making an estimate of a problem using ‘deductive reasoning‘. At the last and fourth stage of cognitive development, the adolescent who has now gained abstract thinking is able to understand and interpret the feelings and thoughts of others besides himself.

Criticism of Piaget's Theory:
Although Piaget put forward his own theory, there have been many criticisms of his theory: the most frequently criticized issue is that he did not adequately address the social environment and culture in his theory. According to critics, the influence of social environment and cultural differences had a major impact on Piaget's theory of cognitive development, but Piaget ignored this. Another criticism is that Piaget's theory does not include post-adolescent development. According to critics, in this theory, the detail in which the abilities of the person are taken into account, which we call individual differences, has been ignored. Despite the criticism of Piaget's theory, Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development has made a very important contribution to the Psychology resource and its students.

Bibliography

• biography. info/person/jean -piaget (Accessed: September 13, 2023)
• biography. net. tr/jean -piaget -who is (Accessed: September 13, 2023)
• novarge.com.tr/blog/piaget-in-bilissel-gelisim-kuramı-ve-donemleri.html (Accessed:September 13, 2023)
• dergipark.org.tr piagete-gore-development(Accessed:September 14, 2023)
• evrimagaci.org/piagetin-bilissel-gelisim-teorisi-nedir (Accessed:September 14, 2023)

The effects of traumatic events place a significant burden on individuals, families, and societies. While some individuals are resilient and can navigate their lives without major negative impacts following a traumatic event, others may experience difficulties and exhibit symptoms of traumatic stress. Each person's reaction to trauma is unique and influenced by various factors, including past experiences, beliefs, perceptions, expectations, stress tolerance, and values.

It is crucial to understand that developing post-traumatic symptoms is not indicative of psychological weakness or deficiency. The impact of a traumatic situation largely depends on pre-existing factors, such as an individual's ability to process the experience without resorting to avoidance and the presence of protective factors.

For instance, in the context of war, although all soldiers are exposed to highly traumatic experiences, not all of them are diagnosed with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). After a traumatic event, individuals are likely to experience post-traumatic stress symptoms, including sleep problems, flashbacks, and intense emotions for several weeks. However, if these symptoms persist beyond a few weeks or emerge months after the traumatic event has ended, it is crucial for the person to seek evaluation from a specialist for a potential PTSD diagnosis. The development or non-development of trauma symptoms at this point can be influenced by various factors, such as the individual's ability to process the experience without obvious avoidance and the presence of the aforementioned protective factors.

MAJOR TRAUMATIC EVENTS

According to the DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders), PTSD trauma refers to any condition where an individual's bodily integrity and life are threatened, typically involving major traumas (referred to as major "T" traumas). Major "T" traumas are extraordinary and significant events that leave a person feeling powerless and devoid of control over their surroundings. The following are examples of major "T" traumas:

1. Sexual Assault 

Sexual assault encompasses non-consensual sexual behavior directed towards an adult or adolescent. It includes any forced sexual contact against the person's will, achieved through threats or physical force. Sexual assault encompasses various forms of sexual harassment and abuse, such as rape, fondling, and forced kissing. It is important to note that sexual assault is not limited to physical acts alone. For instance, coercing someone into sexual intercourse, engaging in unwanted sexual dialogues, pressuring individuals to view explicit content, or demanding unwanted sexual behavior are all forms of sexual abuse.

Child Abuse: Child abuse refers to the neglect or mistreatment of a child's well-being by a parent or caregiver. Neglect involves a failure to meet the child's basic needs, such as providing appropriate food, clothing, shelter, medical care, psychological health treatment, education, or adequate supervision. Exposing a child to dangerous environments that cause harm is also considered neglect.

Physical Abuse: Physical abuse encompasses any non-accidental injury or risk of injury to a child caused by a parent, guardian, or person responsible for their care. Physical abuse involves using physical violence to inflict harm on the child, whether to enforce obedience, punish, or vent anger. Examples of physical abuse include actions like applying pepper to the child's mouth, shaking, pushing, burning, or hitting.

Sexual Abuse: Sexual abuse involves situations where a child, unable to fully comprehend or give consent, is coerced or forced by an older adult (or someone at least six years older) to engage in sexual activities for the purpose of sexual gratification. This behavior goes against legal or social norms and is a form of sexual exploitation.

Emotional Abuse: Emotional abuse occurs when parents or adults in the child's environment impose unrealistic expectations, engage in offensive language, or undertake actions that impede emotional, social, and personality development. Examples of emotional abuse include yelling, rejecting, humiliating, cursing, leaving the child alone, misleading, intimidating, threatening, neglecting emotional needs, assigning responsibilities beyond their age, making unfair distinctions between siblings, disregarding their worth and care, mocking, using derogatory nicknames, applying excessive pressure, fostering dependency, and subjecting them to excessive protection. Child abuse and neglect not only lead to significant and often long-lasting psychological disorders but also increase the likelihood of experiencing sexual or physical assault later in life, commonly known as "re-victimization." Child abuse and neglect are considered the most significant risk factors for psychological difficulties resulting from traumatic events experienced later in life.

2. Domestic Violence 

Domestic violence refers to actual or threatened physical violence, sexual violence, and/or emotional violence occurring between adults in a close relationship. It occurs when one of the adults engages in physically or sexually aggressive behavior towards the other, including acts of humiliation, excessive criticism, stalking, and/or violence or threats against children, pets, or property. Such violence has severe consequences for both physical and psychological well-being.

3. Trauma Related to War

a) War-Related Trauma: War entails a wide range of violent and traumatic experiences, including death, the threat of mutilation, physical injuries, witnessing the injuries or death of others, and participating in injuring or killing others. As a result, soldiers directly involved in combat often suffer from traumatic stress symptoms and disorders.

b) Refugee and War Zone Trauma: Refugee trauma can occur as a consequence of living in an area affected by bombing, looting, or being forced to relocate due to political reasons. War zone trauma encompasses the psychological effects of war, political violence, or torture on individuals exposed to these circumstances.

c) Acts of Terrorism: Acts of terrorism are intentional acts of violence usually carried out for political or religious reasons, aiming to cause psychological or physical harm to an enemy. These acts often result in numerous injuries, deaths, or harm. Unfortunately, numerous examples of terrorism exist in various countries around the world.

d) Physical Assault by Strangers: Physical assault by strangers involves perpetrators engaging in physically violent behavior such as grabbing, extortion, beating, stabbing, and similar acts against individuals they do not know. The targets of these attacks are often chosen for robbery or to express the attacker's anger. Experiencing such an attack profoundly shakes a person's sense of security, leading to traumatic symptoms like fear and heightened vigilance.

4. Traumatic Loss

Traumatic loss and grief can occur following the sudden and unexpected death of a loved one, which may result from accidents, violence, or other unforeseen circumstances. The experience of a traumatic loss involves feelings of longing, searching, loneliness, as well as emotional distress characterized by lethargy, disbelief, insecurity, anger, emptiness, and a sense of hopelessness about the future. Individuals who undergo traumatic loss often struggle with inadequate coping skills to navigate the associated symptoms of trauma.

5. Natural Disasters

 Natural disasters, such as earthquakes, major fires, floods, tsunamis, hurricanes, avalanches, tornadoes, and volcanic eruptions, can cause significant harm, casualties, and extensive damage beyond human control. These events are usually sudden, unexpected, and overwhelming, exposing individuals to traumatizing situations such as injuries, fear of death, loss of loved ones, and property damage. People affected by natural disasters may exhibit various trauma symptoms, including intense and unpredictable emotions, flashbacks, difficulties with decision-making and concentration, as well as sleep and eating problems.

6. Fires

While large-scale fires are typically categorized as natural disasters, smaller-scale fires such as house fires, workplace fires, industrial fires, and firework accidents can also result in traumatic symptoms for individuals. The healing process for severe burn injuries, the painful nature of such injuries, and the multiple medical interventions involved can contribute to the recurrence of trauma symptoms.

7. Accidents

 Serious accidents, including plane, train, or motor vehicle accidents, can profoundly affect and traumatize the individuals involved. Experiencing significant injuries or the death of others in such accidents can lead to the development of severe psychological symptoms in a substantial portion of those affected. The intense shock experienced during an accident can trigger chemical changes in the brain that manifest as trauma symptoms. The effects of this type of trauma may persist for months or even years after the event. Ignoring or neglecting the impact of the trauma can exacerbate the situation. Some individuals may also alter their lifestyle or habits following accidents, such as avoiding driving or experiencing intense anxiety when faced with driving situations. Intense anxieties related to the traumatic event are common among accident survivors.

8. Medical Illnesses

Patients and their families exposed to serious illnesses, challenging medical procedures, and distressing treatment experiences can undergo extremely traumatic events, leading to the development of psychological and physical trauma symptoms. Conditions such as heart attacks, cancer, HIV/AIDS, strokes, or brain hemorrhages can be considered examples of traumatic diseases. Intensive care, surgeries, and other medical interventions that involve significant pain and fear can also contribute to trauma. Patients who have undergone major medical interventions, as well as their relatives who have witnessed the process, may exhibit symptoms of post-traumatic stress, such as depression and anxiety.

Coping with Trauma As previously mentioned, trauma is a profoundly overwhelming and challenging life event that disrupts a person's sense of security, control, and coping abilities. After experiencing a traumatic event, individuals may encounter intense emotions such as tension, anger, restlessness, depression, fear, panic, guilt, hopelessness, intolerance, helplessness, and shame. Temporary symptoms such as nightmares, sleep problems, flashbacks, avoidance, and heightened startle response may also arise. Typically, trauma symptoms last for a few days to a few months and gradually diminish as the individual processes the distressing event. However, even when one feels well, painful memories or emotions can occasionally be triggered, especially on the anniversary of the event or when confronted with reminders.

So, what can be done to overcome traumatic events?

1. Avoid avoiding discussions about the incident. Contrary to popular belief, trying to forget the event and avoiding conversations about it does not reduce the effects of trauma. In fact, it can prolong the recovery process. Talking about the traumatic experience and seeking social support can help individuals cope with difficult emotions and facilitate the healing process. Therefore, it is important to confide in someone trustworthy and discuss what happened. Sharing with family or friends who can provide understanding and support can be immensely helpful during challenging times.

2. While it is natural to desire to avoid distressing memories, completely avoiding places, situations, and people associated with the traumatic event can perpetuate the cycle of trauma. It is important to gradually confront and face the traumatic event without avoidance.

3. Following a traumatic event, one may feel inclined to isolate oneself from others. However, withdrawing from social interactions and becoming lonely only exacerbate the problem. Spending time with others can contribute to a sense of well-being, so maintaining relationships and avoiding excessive solitude can aid in the healing process.

4. Remember that the symptoms and emotions experienced after a traumatic event are entirely normal reactions. Allow yourself time to heal. Understand that the intense feelings will not persist indefinitely. By addressing and engaging with these emotions and thoughts instead of avoiding them, it is possible to overcome them. Practice self-compassion and accept that it may take time for these feelings and thoughts to find balance.

5. Engage in activities that bring you joy and pleasure. Take time to relax, go for walks in beautiful places, and spend time with friends.

6. Avoid using alcohol, drugs, or sedatives as coping mechanisms. They can exacerbate the situation. Seek healthier ways to relax and manage stress.

7. If the symptoms continue to significantly impact your daily life, seek assistance from a mental health professional who specializes in trauma. They can provide guidance and support tailored to your specific needs.

Remember, recovering from trauma is a process that varies for each individual. It's important to be patient with yourself and seek help when needed.

The prefrontal lobe, located behind the forehead, acts as a control center for our willpower. This region is responsible for focus, attention, and decision-making. Just like our body, our brain needs proper care and nutrition to function optimally.

Several factors may contribute to the decrease in willpower:

• Uncertainty in decision-making
• Insufficient sleep
• Fluctuations in daily glucose levels
• Messy environment

In essence, most of the reasons that affect our willpower are related to physical conditions. Lack of rest and irregular sleep patterns can reduce cognitive abilities and impair self-control. Chronic insomnia can have effects similar to poisoning. Therefore, adhering to a recommended sleep cycle between 11 a.m. and 5 a.m. can strengthen our willpower.

In addition, our daily fluctuations in glucose levels can also weaken our willpower. The effect of sugar on our bodies often leads to irritability during periods of hunger. Natural sugar levels are affected, and artificial sugars can promote addictive tendencies similar to intoxication. Long periods without food during the day cause significant decreases in sugar levels, which can lead to impulsive eating without taking into account the nutritional value. The sudden increase in sugar disrupts our willpower, and fluctuating sugar levels can lead to insulin resistance, eventually resulting in irreversible diabetes. Getting rid of the vicious cycle after becoming addicted to sugar requires precise decision-making.

Considering that it makes up 70% of our body, the water level of the body is also an important factor in reducing willpower. Insufficient water intake can lead to problems in the body's conduction system and may even manifest as skin problems. Insufficient water consumption interferes with kidney function, which in turn affects the release of hormones, including stress hormones. This disturbance in hormonal balance can affect both mental and physical well-being. Some sources suggest that the quality of water is as important as the quantity. Choosing alkaline waters with a pH value above 7 can provide better body balance and reduce the risk of infection by creating an unfavorable environment for microorganisms.

An error in any of the above fields can disrupt the entire system. For example, incomplete nutrition negatively affects various aspects. However, if the system is properly nourished and balanced, it will function and develop optimally. The power to maintain control is in our hands. The will is not only psychological or physiological; rather, it encompasses the body, mind, and soul. We are what we eat, and our thoughts shape our reality.

While examining the relationship between the brain and emotions, emotional neuroscience focuses on the formation, development, and effects of emotions, the nervous mechanisms, which are the main components of emotions, the causes, and consequences of these mechanisms on human and animal behavior, with the disciplines of psychology, neuroscience, and biology. In this direction, the basis of emotions, their neural substrates, and their effects on our behavior are examined.

NERVOUS BASIS OF EMOTIONS
Emotional neuroscience studies the areas of the brain involved in emotional processing. At this point, the amygdala is of great importance. The amygdala is primarily responsible for detecting stimuli on the basis of emotional importance, with fear and threat elements. However, the Prefrontal Cortex, which is responsible for higher cognitive functions, is responsible for emotion regulation and evaluation. Emotional experiences occur as a result of the interactions of the responsible regions in the brain.

NERVOUS PROCESSES OF EMOTIONAL REACTIONS
In emotional responses, neurotransmitters (especially serotonin, dopamine, and noradrenaline) and hormones are of great importance in terms of the intensity of the responses. In addition, the hormones Cortisol and Oxytocin take part in stress responses. Neurotransmitters and hormones are components of fundamental factors in understanding complex interactions, in emotional neuroscience, and in generating emotional responses in this context.

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF EMOTIONS
Emotional Development is defined as the development of the skills to understand, experience, express and manage emotions. In addition to early experiences and environmental factors, genetics also influence it. Thus, it can be seen that the interaction between Emotional Neuroscience and Emotional Development is a result of the interaction between upbringing and genetics.

EMOTION REGULATION SKILL
The goal of emotion regulation is to achieve emotional stability and resilience. Emotion regulation examines how a person controls, regulates and directs emotional responses in cognitive processes (eg, attentional control and reappraisal).

ANIMAL EMOTIONS
Emotional neuroscience examines not only the monopoly of emotions, but also the evolutionary development of emotions, the comparison of human-animal emotional development processes, the universal base of emotions, and the diversity of emotions, with great emphasis on animal emotions.

METHODOLOGY
In Emotional Neuroscience examinations, neural activities are observed and measured with methods such as fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) and EEG (electroencephalography).

  Love Bombing is a type of emotional violence that a narcissistic partner applies to his partner. The purpose of this violence is to establish authority over the partner. Love Bombing, which starts with conscious or unconscious manipulations, causes the partner who is being manipulated to feel inadequate and dependent. It doesn't take long for the partner who feels above the clouds at the beginning of the relationship to be pushed down from those clouds.

   A narcissistic partner tries to become the most important person in their partner's life and make self-dependent by surprising their partner with excessive love and attention, extravagant gifts, romantic surprises, and future plans at the beginning of the relationship. Thus, the partner who has been manipulated will think that will never be loved so much again, that will not receive attention.

   The partner who has been manipulated is ignored, blamed, ignored, and made to feel worthless in an unwanted behavior while being bombarded with love as long as the narcissistic partner behaves as wants. The partner who has been manipulated tries to behave the way the partner loved as before, is afraid of doing something wrong, and self-criticism increases, as a result, self-confidence decreases, begins to feel inadequate and dependent, self-esteem decreases, begins to doubt their selves (feelings and intelligence). Over time, it makes psychological disorders such as anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and panic attacks inevitable. But despite all this, the partner who is being manipulated cannot be separated from the narcissistic partner.

SYMPTOMS OF LOVE BOMBING

1.            A narcissistic partner wants to know everything about his partner down to the smallest detail on the first date. Pretends to be fascinated by the pieces of information. This makes the partner feel very special and important. However, the narcissistic partner's main goal here is to collect information in order to be able to pressure and manipulate the partner with this information in the future.

2.            They tell their whole history from the first date. Thus, the partner feels empathy and closeness toward them.

3.    They constantly expect approval and compliments from their partner. Because, deep down, their self-confidence is quite low.

4.            A narcissistic partner makes very big declarations of love to their partner. He says that his partner is his soul mate, that he is very lucky to be with her, and that no one understands him but her. These words, which will easily affect a person, make the partner feel close to them.

5.            It advances the course of the romantic relationship very quickly. It is likely that said wanted to get married a week after they met. But this is a tactic. This tactic tests whether the partner will break up with them or not.

6.            Always says what their partner wants to hear. This way, the partner feels understood and approved.

7.            Wants to be with their partner constantly. Constantly texts or calls when they can't be next to each other. They want all the time and attention of their partner.

8.            Gives extravagant gifts. In this way, makes the partner feel indebted. This behavior is a tactic aimed at establishing authority in the relationship.

9.            There are intense jealousy problems. Jealous of the time spent with their partner's friends and even with family, causing the partner to feel guilty.

10.          Suddenly, can get all the attention, treat their partner badly, and even pretend that the partner doesn't exist at all. This usually happens when the partner tries to set limits or does something they don't want to do.  

HOW TO PREVENT LOVE BOMBING?

1.            First of all, it should start with learning to recognize Narcissists. Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD) persists with a lack of empathy, excessive attention, the need for attention and praise, and excessive self-meaning.

2.            Excessive movements at the beginning of the relationship should be carefully examined. It should be remembered that a behavior made at the beginning of a relationship that is too beautiful to be true, but exaggerated, is probably not real.

3.            Personal emotional shortcomings should be known and acknowledged. Thus, narcissistic partners cannot use these shortcomings as a means of exploitation.

4.            A healthy relationship is possible with respect, empathy, compassion, and healthy communication. Since a narcissist lacks these abilities, these concepts are very important for a healthy relationship.

5.            One should have firm views on reality. So a narcissist can't play with your reality.

   Gestalt Theory, (also known as Gestalt Psychology or Gestaltism) 20. This theory emerged in century Germany with Max Wertheimer's article and focused on perception in cognitive processes. Gestalt Theory focuses on how the mind sees perceived things as a whole. We can sum it up with  Kurt Koffka's sentence  ‘It is something different from the coming together of all the parts that make up it.” Therefore, the whole should not be studied as something formed due to the coming together of parts; it should be studied independently on its own.

   The Gestalt Theory is holistic. An object, its behavior, etc. to break it into pieces breaks the integrity. For example, the word ’sea' consists of the letters s-e-a. But when divided into letters, the meaning of the word breaks down. Instead of looking at the pieces individually, we get meaningfulness when we look at the whole.

   For example, sometimes we may not be able to make sense of more than one complex event in our daily life, but our friend, who we tell the events respectively, can easily make sense when he looks at the whole from the outside with an eye. the digits 1 and 0 can make the number 10 from these two digits. Because the concepts that make the main meaning are the pattern and connection Decoupled between events.

   Gestalt Psychologists have studied how the cognitive process comes together, perceives, and interprets the individual's environment, and have concluded that the mind is interested in the whole rather than the part, even combining elements that are decoupled, making them familiar to itself. This theory consists of principles that explain visual perception.

GESTALT PRINCIPLES

1.                The Principle of Proximity

According to this principle, the mind tends to perceive objects close to each other as a group. For example, in the image above, there are 6 equal rounds on the left and the right. However, although the Decals on the left do not make sense, the decals on the right come together with symmetrical distances and form a triangle.

2.                The Principle of Similarity

The mind tends to make similar elements into a whole/group and give them meaning. Thus, the elements gain perceptual integrity with their colors, sizes, or shapes. Clustering is ensured by the color similarity of the elements, and integrity is ensured by the distances of the elements from each other. In the image above, the black rounds have achieved uniformity with their equal colors and have gained a line form.

3.                Principle of Closure

By this principle, the mind perceives incomplete elements as a whole by completing the missing parts. For example, although there is a space between the elements in the image above, our mind perceives this space in the form of a triangle.

4.                Principle Of Symmetry

According to the Principle of Symmetry, the mind perceives elements in a symmetrical way focused on a center point. It Junks the elements to be symmetrical. Therefore, even if the elements are not symmetrical, the mind tends to perceive them symmetrically. For example, the picture on the side is a representation of the symmetry principle. In this notation, we see square and curved brackets. This is the reason why we see 3 pairs of brackets instead of seeing 6 brackets in the image above.

5.                  The Principle of Common Fate

According to the Principle of Common Destiny, our mind perceives objects in a smooth trajectory, as in the image above.

6.                Principle of Continuity

According to the Continuity Principle, the mind perceives elements that are side by side in the form of a group with perceptual integrity. Even if two different wholes intersect, the groups are considered undivided and continue to be considered separate.

7.                   The Principle of Prägnanz

When the elements come together with the pattern, the mind tends to perceive these elements as a group. This principle is based on the idea of clarity at the heart of Gestalt theory.

8.                 The Principle of Past Experience

According to the Principle of Past Experience, in some cases, the way items are perceived according to our past experiences may change. For example, in the image above, some of us will see a vase, while some of us will see a silhouette of two human faces facing each other.

THERE ARE 4 CRITERIA FOR A CHEMICAL TO BE A NEUROTRANSMITTER:
1. It must be synthesized or contained within the neuron.
2. When the neuron becomes active, it should be released from the neuron and create an action and response in the opposite neuron.
3. The response it creates in the opposite neuron should be proven in the experimental field.
4. There must be a mechanism to ensure that it is retrieved after its mission is over.

SMALL MOLECULAR NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Amines
catecholamines

      Dopamine (DA) Noradrenaline (NA) Adreanline
- Serotonin (5-HT)

Amino Acids
- Glutamate (Glu)
- Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)

Acetylcholine (ACh)
• It is the first neurotransmitter found. It is considered on its own as it does not fit into other structural classifications. It plays a key role for the neuromuscular junction and some synapses. It is important for both the central and peripheral nervous systems. memory and learning in the central nervous system; In the peripheral nervous system, it is effective in sending messages to the muscles and glands.
• Linked to Alzheimer's disease.
• Like serotonin and dopamine, it is not transported back into the cell. After use, it is broken down and recycled by the enzyme Acetylcholinesterase.
• Some toxins, such as Botulinum Toxin, prevent the acetylcholinesterase enzyme from working. Failure of acetylcholinesterase to work causes muscle problems. Therefore, Botulinum Toxin has effects such as paralysis, cessation of breathing, cardiac arrest and tremor.
• Acetylcholine has 2 types of receptors. These receptors get their name from their Agonists, which perform the same function.
1. Muscarinic Receptors
- It is found in a mushroom.
- It affects the intracellular signaling mechanism.
- Depending on its type, it sends a warning and stop signal to the cell.

2. Nicotinic Receptor
- It is found in tobacco.
- Ligand-gated ion channel. When acetylcholine binds to this channel, sodium, potassium and calcium ions enter the cell.
- Found in neurons and muscles.

• Cholinergic System and Cognition
- There are 2 types of systems:
1. Sympathetic Nervous System: "Fight or Flight"
2. Parasympathetic Nervous System: “Nutrition and Urea” – “Rest and Digest”
- Cholinergic system is another name for Parasympathetic Nervous System. The main precursor of this system is Acetylcholine. It uses Acetylcholine while preparing the body to feed, rest, reproduce and digest.

Amines

• Dopamine (DA)
- It is necessary for basal ganglia to process.
- Produces intense feelings of pleasure. Excess secretion may cause Schizophrenia, under secretion may cause Parkinson's Disease.
- It is the main neurotransmitter of the Mesocorticolimbic System, which is an important part of the reward system and related to addiction.
- It is produced in two places:
1. Substantia Nigra (SN)
It is in the midbrain.
Responsible for reward and movement.
It is an important location for Parkinson's Disease.
It has a darker structure due to the amount of Melanin hormone in its structure.
2. Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA)
It is in the midbrain.
It produces neurons with cognitive function.
It has to do with pleasure, learning, motivation and drug addiction.

• Noradrenaline (NA)
- It is produced in the brain stem.
- A decrease or increase in its level affects the mental state. For example, low levels of noradrenaline can lead to depression.

• Adrenaline
- Produced by the adrenal glands.
- Prepares the organism for immediate action.

• Serotonin (5-HT)
- Affects mental state and social behavior.
- Antidepressants prevent Serotonin reuptake and keep Serotonin in the synapses.

• Catecholamines and Serotonin
- Catecholamines are produced by nervous tissue, brain and adrenal glands. They give the message of "Fight or Flight", which is the message of the Sympathetic Nervous System.

- There are 3 catecholamines:
1. Dopamine (DA)
2. Noradrenaline (NA)
3. Adrenaline

- Although these three catecholamines are produced in the same place, they differ as a result of biosynthesis.

- Biosynthesis
It is the reason for the main difference of catecholamines.
It ensures the survival, growth and development of the organism.
Its raw material is Tyrosine. The first place where Tyrosine emerges as an amino acid is the liver. It is important for healthy brain development.
In catecholamine biosynthesis, tyrosine is first sent to the brain. As a result of biosynthesis, Tyrosine is converted to Dopamine, Dopamine to Noradrenaline, and Noradreanline to Adrenaline.

Amino Acids
• Glutamate (Glu)
- It's a warning. It depolarizes the neuron from which it is released.
- Affects learning and memory.
- Disruption in transmission can lead to Schizophrenia.

• Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
- It is an important neurotransmitter with inhibitory effect.
- Benzodiazepine and similar antidepressant drugs have a calming effect thanks to the inhibition of GABA.
- Picrotoxin drug causes convulsions by closing GABA receptors.