John Gottman's work in couples therapy and relationship counseling has had a broad impact on finding solutions to problems in marriages, allowing him to become an authority in the field. Approximately forty years ago, a team was formed and a laboratory was established by John Gottman and Robert Levenson to conduct research on marriage and divorce. After a while, the laboratory began to be called the Love Laboratory. In the Love Laboratory, answers to some basic questions are provided. The questions sought to be answered by Gottman are as follows: "Can we predict who will divorce and who will continue their marriage?" and “What makes relationships last?”. To carry out the first study, 130 newly married couples were reached. In this laboratory, couples do what they do in daily life. While eating, doing their hobbies, talking to each other, in short, every activity they do, they are watched by cameras and video recordings in the flat. In addition, devices for ECG imaging were carried on each individual. Urine samples were taken from the couples every time they went to the toilet to analyze their stress hormones. In addition, individuals' blood circulation rate, general somatic activities and skin conductance, which is the electrical change of the skin depending on sweat secretion, were also monitored (Anlatan, 2021).

 The team monitored and coded individuals' body languages, vital activities and facial expressions through these cameras. In addition, a blood sample was taken from each couple after a night in the laboratory to check their hormones and immune systems. In this study, approximately two-hour interviews with couples were also conducted. Interviews constituted the important part of the research. During these interviews, the couples were asked many detailed questions, such as how they met, their first impressions of each other, why they chose each other, how they decided to be together, how their relationship progressed, the things they enjoyed doing together, how their relationship changed over the years, the difficult times they went through, the things that kept them together , the methods they use to get through difficult times, their views on each other in difficult times, marriage ceremonies, honeymoon holidays, beliefs about the relationship, definitions of good and bad relationships, important dates and events in their relationships, important developments, losses, stressful situations (Narrator, 2021. pp:75). Throughout the interview, individuals' tone of voice, the words they choose, their gestures and facial expressions, and their positive and negative emotions are monitored and recorded. Finally, Gottman asked the couples to argue about a topic and watched them (Anlatan, 2021. p. 75).

 When the results of the large-scale research were examined, it was predicted correctly with a rate of 94% which couple would divorce and which couple would continue their marriage. In the first study, it was predicted that 15 out of 130 couples would divorce within seven years. Follow-up studies revealed that 17 couples, including these predicted couples, were divorced. In the following years, Gottman and Levenson continued their work in the Love Laboratory and obtained data from more than 3000 couples. Gottman states that after more than seven studies, he was able to predict which couple would stay married and which would divorce, with a 91% success rate, through approximately 15-minute interviews with couples (Anlatan, 2021. pp: 76).

 Studies conducted over the years have examined not only newlyweds, but also those who are preparing to have children, those who have children, and couples in their 40s and 60s. Throughout these studies, couples were followed longitudinally for a long time in terms of important milestones in their lives such as becoming parents, middle age, and retirement (Anlatan, 2021.ss:76).

 In addition to these studies, families with children were also examined in the Love Laboratory. When couples have children, both parent-child interactions and the child's emotional, cognitive, behavioral and social development have been tracked. Gottman states that the quality of the marital relationship has a direct impact on the child. Studies conducted in the laboratory have shown that the adrenaline hormone found in the urine test taken from the child is directly related to the quality of the parents' relationship; It has been shown that the worse the relationship, the more the hormone level increases (Anlatan, 2021.ss:76).

 It is known that the Love Laboratory was later established in other universities. Similar results were found in these laboratories and the consistency of the study was proven. Studies conducted over the years have turned into longitudinal studies. Thanks to methods such as observation, self-report and examination of physiological data, very successful results have been achieved regarding both couples' relationship satisfaction and relationship stability.

Thanks to methods such as observation, self-report and examination of physiological data, very successful results have been achieved regarding both couples' relationship satisfaction and relationship stability. Gottman and Schwartz stated that the findings of this study have three main results: 1) an understanding of how relationships work or fail, 2) predicting the adaptation of newlyweds to transitions such as parenthood, middle age and retirement, and 3) equations for mathematical modeling of marital interaction. In their later studies, Gottman and his colleagues created nonlinear mathematical modeling and equations of love. Based on all these findings, John Gottman and Julie Schwartz Gottman developed a theory that includes psychoeducational, preventive and therapeutic interventions on how relationships succeed or fail. They also explained the equations in detail in their book titled Mathematics of Marriage (Anlatan, 2021.ss: 77).

 Known for his successes in marriage and couples therapy, Gottman has also written more than forty books and nearly 200 articles. He also has books written together with his teammates. His works such as "The Seven Principles for Making Marriage Work" and "Why Marriages Succeed or Fail" have reached a wide readership. With his deep, surprising knowledge of marriage and relationships, John Gottman provides couples with a resource for building healthy, sustainable relationships.

References

Anlatan, Ö. deneye dayalı bir yaklaşım: Gottman çift Terapisi. Aile Psikolojik Danışmanlığı Dergisi.4:1. 74-93.

According to the relationships established in adulthood, there are three attachment types by Ainsworth: secure attachment, anxious attachment, and avoidant attachment. However, in the subsequent years, a fourth attachment type was defined as disorganized attachment.

• Secure Attachment: It is the desired type of attachment. This attachment identifies the bond established with their Caregivers, that children growing up in an accepting environment and  with positive parental attitudes. These children play games with their Caregivers and trust them.They feel more comfortable when it comes to reflecting their feelings and separating from parents.They can have the ability of trusting others and respecting themselves. These children are people who can empathize, maintain their boundaries and respect the relationships they have established as adults. They trust their partner: they can be in a stable relationship, but they are not dependent on their partner. They are not afraid of rejection. They can have a close and meaningful relationships.

•  Anxious Attachment: It is the one of the insecure attachment types. The caregiver sometimes responses to all of the child's necessity, but sometimes ignores the child's necessity like a completely neglectful parent. In return, the child is concerned about the inconsistent caregiver when and how to respond to their necessity. This anxiety includes the fear of abandonment and rejection. As a result of this inconsistency behaviours of the caregiver and his/her concerns, the child can neither fully approach the caregiver nor move away from him/her.They have low self-confidence. They are constantly dependent on others and in need of approval. They experience insecurity and jealousy in their relationships. They have difficulty in being alone, so they maintain even negative relationships. They can not set boundaries for their partners and they need their approval because of the fear of abondonment. They do not consider themselves worthy of being loved since their self-confidence and self-esteem are low. They put the blame on themselves for the problems they experience in their relationships.

• Avoidant Attachment: The caregiver is unconcerned and distant. Even if the caregiver ignored the child's needs, he-she remained unresponsive. The child is unresponsive to the absence or presence of the caregiver. They have difficulty in establishing emotional and physical intimacy with others and therefore they prefer to be alone rather than establishing stable relationships. They want to be independent, they think they do not need the support of others. They put up a wall against others. They have an independent structure in their relationships. They may experience confidence problems and they can be abandoned easily. They can not have a deep romantic relationships and tends to run away. They have difficulty in expressing their feelings. In general, they have problems in their interpersonal relationships.

• Disorganized Insecure Attachment: It may come in sight as a result of abuse, neglect, and exposure to violence in childhood. Actually, it is the fear of caregiver. Inconsistencies can be seen in anxiety control. They are unable to get through stress, and they are anxious about rejection despite of willingness to have close relationships. The caregiver may have a psychiatric disorder (e.g., bipolar). It is a rather unhealthy type of the attachment. The child is in a mess. The parental figure seems unreliable and fear-anxiety-inducing. He or she may have difficulty in controlling and coping problems in the adulthood. They may be inclined to crime. The use of drugs and alcoho is also common. They have problems in their social life. Their feelings towards their partner are unstable. There is a lack of emotional regulation skills. While they avoide emotional intimacy because they are sure of rejection by others, they can also be overly dependent, demanding constant attention in the close relations and they can become a person who loses control when there is something they do not want to.

As you can see, our attachment types are the determinant of how we will be and the roles we will acquire in the relationships we establish today. But of course, we don't have to base all our problems on them and accept by saying ‘’I'm like that, I can't change that,’’. It is seen by researches that this situation can be reversed with the environmental events and pathologies experienced by a person who is securely attached in childhood.Therefore, someone who attaches insecure also discovers the attachment type and goes over it; if necessary, by taking psychotherapy, it can be attached safely in adult life, on the contrary.

In the absence of a sense of belonging, issues such as alienation, isolation, and disconnectedness may arise risks, along with complications such as decreased motivation, increased stress and anxiety, and depression. Since belonging is crucial for the development of social skills and empathy, the lack of it adversely affects these skills. Consequently, it becomes challenging for individuals to live comfortably within society.

 Motivation is a word of Latin origin and is derived from the word 'movere', which means to take action or to activate. The Turkish equivalent of the word motivation, which means any force or motive that consciously or unconsciously gives rise to behavior, ensures the continuity of behavior and directs it, is "güdü". Motivation is the state that activates and maintains behavior to achieve a goal. The behavior of a child who keeps his/her room tidy in order to win his/her mother's chocolate reward is an example of motivation. According to the German philosopher Schoupenhaur, it is the result of all organisms' desire to choose, comprehend and even achieve satisfaction. According to Vroom, the process of choosing among a person's voluntary actions is defined as motivation. Skinner defines motivation in school learning as 'arousing, maintaining and directing desired behavior'. Although motivation has been defined in many different ways, it essentially explains the beginning of behavior, its direction to a goal, and the continuation of behavior in line with this goal. In fact, motivation is the driving force, desire and enthusiasm necessary to achieve what is desired. American educator Terell explains the importance of motivation with the sentence: “There are three things to remember about education; The first is motivation, the second is motivation, the third is motivation again.”

 While motivation is so important in the actions performed or to be performed, how motivation is achieved and maintained has been a matter of curiosity for scientists in the 21st century. While at least 300 studies on this subject were published until the mid-1970s, the most well-known of these studies is the 'Two-Factor Motivation Theory', which Herzberg revealed in the 1950s. While creating this theory, he researches the techniques used by managers to motivate employees and completes it by examining in detail the steps followed by institutions to increase their motivation by meeting the needs of employees. Herzberg focused on two basic questions in his study:

1) Think of a time when you felt particularly good about your job, why did you feel that way?

2) Think of a time when you felt particularly bad about your job, why did you feel that way?

 According to the feedback given to these questions, Herzberg based motivation on the motivation factor (intrinsic factor) and the hygiene factor (extrinsic factor).

 Today, motivation theories are divided into two categories that called content and process. While content theories explain what motivation is, process theories explain how motivation occurs. When it was realized that motivation covers so much space in the individual's life, motivational theory was also used in psychotherapies, and motivational theory played a major role in the process of addiction that the individual wanted to gain or quit. As it is known, in psychotherapy, the individual's need to gain awareness about the problem, his/her belief that the problem can be eliminated, and the clinician's attention to the requirements to eliminate the problem are critical and important points for the client. Motivational Theory has classified the process that individuals experience in terms of change into four stages:

1. Pre-Design Period

During this period, the client cannot see the problem or has trouble accepting it. The most effective method that can be done during this period is to make the individual realize the difference between the situation he/she wants to be in and the situation he/she is today. For example, an individual who experiences OCD very intensely should be emphasized about the difference between his/her life before OCD and the life he/she is trying to continue with OCD, and the contributions of other individuals who do not experience this condition to their lives and the possibility that they can be comfortable even though they are not in this situation should be conveyed.

2. Design Period

 During this period, the client is aware of the problem and wants to solve it, but still lacks belief that the problem can be solved. During this period, it is aimed to increase the client's belief that the problem will be resolved by examining the reason for his or her slight belief that the problem will be resolved. Concrete situations should be shown to the client that this is possible by performing some behavioral experiments to show that the problem can be solved, even if it is difficult. For example, when we want him to do a daily routine he has had for a long time in a different way, we must convince him that change is possible by showing a behavioral example that it can be changed, even if it is difficult.

3. Preparation Period

 The individual in this period now wants change and feels ready for what needs to be done for change. During this period, the client should set small goals and the process of achieving his goals should be closely monitored. It is possible to conduct cognitive behavioral therapy during this period.

4. Action Period

 During this period, cognitive therapy is applied completely and the client is now aware of the problem, wants change and is ready to work necessary for this change. But it is still very important to make sure that the client is ready for this process.

 According to Motivational Theory, the basic principle of the interview is that the client should be ready for change, that is, there should be no imposition on the client in this regard. The main purpose of Motivational Theory is to accept that ambivalence can exist in the individual and that this is possible. For this reason, ambivalence thoughts should be resolved by talking to the client and the process should begin after this is overcomed.

References:

• Bilişsel Davranışçı Terapi: Temel İlkeler ve Uygulamalar ( Türkçapar,2022,pp.164-166).

• https://herapsikoloji.com/psikolojide-motivasyon-ve-motivasyon-kuramlari/

The actual self, according to Encyplodia (2022), is what you think you actually possess or what you think other people think you possess. A person's fundamental self-concept is their "actual self." It is an individual's view of their own qualities, including intelligence, beauty, and so forth. In contrast, your ideal self is a representation of the qualities that you believe someone (either yourself or someone else) would like you to have; for example, it could be a representation of someone's dreams, goals, or wishes for you. These characteristics of the self that define oneself don't have to come from the real self; other people can also give them. For instance, if I think of myself as someone who is always on time, then that's just who I am. In a similar vein, if my coworkers say I'm punctual and I know they say that, then punctuality is something that I actually am. (Marouiu&Maricutoiu, 2020) We might not be fulfilling the aspirations and wishes of our significant others when our true selves don't align with their ideals of us. This can result in depressing emotions like guilt, humiliation, and fear of losing their love or approval. For instance, you might feel awkward discussing your grades with your significant other if they view you as a "A" student and you have a 2.8 GPA in your first year of college. (Libretexts, 2020)

Essentially, what drives people to transform, accomplish, and better themselves is their "ideal-self." Positive outcomes, like receiving or not receiving love, are the main focus of the ideal self-regulatory system. Also, That's who you want to be—your ideal self. The qualities you are striving for or aspire to have been present in this individual. That is your ideal self, the person you would like to see yourself as. (Cherry, 2022) Discrepancies between one's ought, and ideal selves can cause a lot of stress. For instance, a lot of working mothers have an idealized self-image that encompasses growth and success in their careers. They might also feel obligated to be a full-time mother, as part of their ought self. (Libretexts, 2020)

The "ought-self" is a representation of the qualities that you, or someone else, feels you should or ought to have. Examples of these characteristics include someone's sense of duty or responsibilities. The ought self-regulatory system concentrates on the existence or nonexistence of unfavorable results, such as being reprimanded or put on hold. Libretexts (2020) mentioned that we are not living up to the ought self that we believe others have constructed for us when our true selves don't align with what we believe other people think we should have. This can cause feelings of agitation, threatened feelings, and fear of possible punishment. For example, when your real self's goals are completely different, you may feel conflicted about what to do when you consider your parents' expectations of you, and you may be afraid of losing contact with them. Also, we can compare three concepts between each other as mentioned below:

Actual versus one's own ideals are our general sense that our goals and aspirations are not being realized causes us to feel disappointed, unsatisfied, and frustrated. Actual versus others’ ideals are shame and embarrassment are caused by the general perception that we are not fulfilling the hopes and wishes of our significant others for us.

Actual versus others’ ought are feelings of agitation, including fear of punishment, arise from our general perception that we are not fulfilling what others perceive to be our duties and obligations. Actual versus own ought are our overall perception that we are not fulfilling our responsibilities can cause us to believe that our moral standards have been violated.

While reading these concepts, you had a chance to observe yourself and can aware some things in yourselves. Throughout our whole life, we can search for our ideal self. In some part of our lives, we cannot totally catch or succeed it, and it is absolutely normal and okay! Since we are human beings, we continually explore and develop ourselves. 

References

Libretexts. (2020b, July 16). 2.2: Self-Discrepancy Theory. Social Sci LibreTexts. https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/College_of_the_Canyons/COMS_246%3A_Interpersonal_Communication_(Leonard)/2%3A_Communication_and_the_Self/2.2%3A_Self-Discrepancy_Theory#:~:text=Discrepancies%20between%20the%20ideal%20and,be%20a%20full%2D%20time%20mother

MSEd, K. C. (2022, November 7). What is Self-Concept? Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-self-concept-2795865

Self-Discrepancy theory. (2022d, October 31). https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/32029#:~:text=Developed%20by%20Edward%20Tory%20Higgins,different%20kinds%20of%20emotional%20vulnerabilities.

Self-Discrepancy theory. (2022c, October 31). https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/32029

Măroiu, C., & Maricuțoiu, L. P. (2020b). Actual self. In Springer eBooks (pp. 39–42). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24612-3_1435

1) Every human being is OKEY 

2) Everyone has the capacity to think.

3) Everyone can decide and choose for themselves what will happen in their lives.

In order to make the inter-experiential context more understandable, Berne analyzed the human self under three main headings as child, parent and adult and called them "Ego States". All our observable behaviors in our daily lives are a reflection of our childhood and can be explained by these three ego states. In our childhood, we produce some strategies to survive, to be accepted and to adapt. These strategies also manifest themselves in our adult lives, influencing the decisions we make and our personality. Although at first glance these ego states are similar to Freud's id, ego and super ego, there are many points where they differ. 

Child Ego State

Early childhood is shaped by our experiences. The child establishes a connection between a certain event and the behavior he/she should exhibit in response to it, and records these two phenomena. In similar situations, they may exhibit similar behaviors or reactions. These records are often influential in a person's life in adulthood. The child ego differs from the id in that it is conscious, learning-based and observable. Although a person may exhibit irrational and inconsistent behaviors under the influence of child ego, in fact, every human being is a child, so childishness, acting like a child does not always indicate a negative or problematic personality structure. The child ego is divided into two in terms of functional analysis:

1) Natural (free) child has unpredictable transitions of emotion and behavior, attends to physical needs, and behaves as he or she feels, without concern for what the outside world has to say. He is independent, charming and charming.

2) Adaptive (Adapted) Child represents the harmonious, well-behaved child model that a person develops in childhood in order not to lose the approval of his/her parents. On the other hand, he/she may sometimes exhibit rebellious attitudes in the face of restrictive parents. For this reason, the distinctive feature of the adapted child is that he/she develops attitudes that are compatible with manipulations rather than what comes from within.

Adult Ego State

It has more autonomous characteristics than other ego states. The person evaluates and interprets the information received from the outside world in his/her own way. The adult ego state cannot be completely associated with chronological age; reason, logic, common sense and awareness are its primary characteristics.

Parent Ego State

This ego state, like the child's ego state, completes its development in early childhood. The child internalizes the reactions of his/her parents in the face of their attitudes and turns them into behaviors. In adulthood, these behaviors are recalled and applied in the face of similar events. The parental ego state gives messages about what and how to do things. It is personal as everyone perceives the ego state of the parent in their own way. It is divided into two in terms of functional analysis:

1) Critical Parents act as teachers. They show a directive, judgmental attitude towards others. People who frequently use this ego state are quick-tempered, dissatisfied and have a punitive attitude. They act within social rules and subjective interests.

2) Protective Parents are expected to give compassionate messages to others, to be kind, polite and helpful

Transactional analysis claims that we determine our own level of worthiness in the light of all these childhood experiences and selected ego states. In this context, Thomas A. Harris states that there are 4 basic life states and that a person can have all of these states but one of them will be more dominant.

1) I am not OKEY, you are OKEY

2) I'm not OKEY, you're not OKEY

3) I'm OKEY, you're not OKEY

4) I'm OKEY, you're OKEY

The current life situation has a direct impact on the individual's communication with himself/herself and with other people. It determines whether the person perceives his/her experiences as positive or negative. At the same time, the chosen life situation will also form the basis for the person's decision on the "life scenario".

Life scripts are shaped by the basic life stages as well as the positive and negative messages received and internalized from parents in childhood. As a result of early childhood experiences, a person produces life scenarios that will be used as a guide throughout his/her life. If we think of this as a scenario of a theater play, even if the other actors or the theater stage changes, the person's life scenario will be shaped.

REFERENCES

• Zümbül, S. (2021). Comprehensive Overview of Transactional Analysis Therapy: A Review Study. Anadolu University Journal of Education Faculty, 5 (1), 51-80. DOI: 10.34056/aujef.769576
• Zengin, E. (2019). Transactional Analysis Analysis of the Movie "Inside Out" in the Context of the Effect of Ego States on Communication. Adnan Menderes University Social Sciences Institute Journal, 6 (1), 30-51. Retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/adusobed/issue/47467/430196

Darwin Evolutionary Theory
While explaining the process of evolution in terms of mental activities, Darwin also put forward a theory of emotion. According to Darwin, emotional expressions are not learned, they are innate. It manifests as part of the survival instinct. For this reason, many emotions are expressed in the same way, do not differ from person to person and do not carry a communicative function.

James-Lange Theory 
According to this theory, emotions arise when physiological changes are interpreted by the brain. For example, in times of danger, we feel fear because our heartbeat speeds up, but our heartbeat does not speed up because we feel fear.

Cannon-Bard Theory
James-Lange emerged as a critic of the emotion theory. This theory argues that physiological reactions alone are not sufficient for the perception of emotions and draws attention to the presence of cognitive activities. It reveals that the reactionary speed of physiological reactions is much slower than the emergence of emotion and that physiological reactions may be the common expression of many emotions or situations.

Stanley Schachter Theory of Emotion
Schachter argues that it is not possible to separate physiological and cognitive processes when explaining emotion, and that personal experiences also play a role in expressing emotions or physiological reactions. 

In the light of these theories, Lisa Feldman Barrett put forward a theory that aims to scientifically explain the experience and perception of emotion. According to the Constructed Emotion Theory, it is not possible to explain the perception and expression of emotions only by genetic factors, physiological reactions and survival instinct. Each person has unique cultural, social and psychological experiences. Therefore, it is inevitable that there will be differences in how emotions are perceived and expressed.

Emotions are perceived in the brain through a series of neural networks that work in cooperation, one after the other. Our brains do not have separate neural structures for each emotion. For this reason, Barrett argues that a stimulus can elicit more than one emotion in our brain. In order to eliminate this confusion, he uses the term "Categories of Emotion". According to the structured emotion theory, while perceiving emotions, our brain creates a model for any functional action by taking into account the current situation and past experiences of the person, which makes emotions predictable. In other words, an object or event does not need to have been experienced before for it to be placed in any emotion category. The brain predicts and categorizes the present moment thanks to internal perceptual predictions and the models it has previously created in order to create an example of emotion at a given moment. Through this process, it concretizes the experience of perceiving a seemingly abstract emotion. For example, if one predicts the unpleasant effect of the presence of a year, this is categorized by the brain and the experience of fear emerges.

In conclusion, instances of emotion are constructed across the entire brain by multiple brain networks in collaboration. The components that go into this construction include internal perception, concepts and social reality. Internal predictions provide information about the state of the body and ultimately produce emotions such as basic, anger, fear, disgust, surprise, happiness and unhappiness. All these emotions combine with one's experiences and universal truths to form a code in the brain. As a result of the codes recalled through real or anticipated stimuli, the perception of the emotion is realized. Instead of following the path of proving or disproving previous theories, Barrett asked new and more comprehensive questions. He aimed to present a scientific fact by concretizing the concepts. Although he dismissed some of the old assumptions of the classical view, his proposed hypotheses provided a coherent theory.

References

Barrett, L. F. (2006). "Solving the emotion paradox: Categorization and the experience of emotion". Personality and Social Psychology Review. 10 (1): 20-46.

How about briefly mentioning how this discomfort found its place in history?

In the early ages, the Ancient Greeks, together with Hippocrates, thought that the abdominal organs were the cause of the emotional disorders that people had, but the word “Hypochondrium” was used since these times, although it represented the underside of the ribcage. However, the treatment of hypochondriasis as a mental illness for the first time was expressed by Thomas Syendham. Pilowski, on the other hand, was the first modern researcher to examine hypochondriasis under three dimensions: excessive effort, fear of disease, and belief in disease. However, this disturbance was included in the DSM-II for the first time in 1968. (Hollifield et al, 2005)

So, what is the lifetime incidence of this disease, both in terms of gender and age?

Studies have shown that the lifetime incidence of hypochondriasis is between 1-5%. APA (2000). However, the incidence of this disorder is higher in gastroenterology, otolaryngology, neurology and endocrinology classes. (Hollifield et al, 2005) Although hypochondriasis is likely to occur at any age, it has generally been found to start in young adulthood. (APA, 2000) In addition, studies in general indicate that this disorder is seen equally in women and men. (Asmundson et al, 2001)

Where does the source of this discomfort come from, can we briefly mention the underlying causes?

In fact, although there is no definitive data on the etiology of somatoform disorders, no clear evidence has been found on the basis of hypochondriasis, whether there is a genetic transition or not. Many researches show that the fact that a person engages in such a mental struggle against his body and has somatic sensitivity shows that the experiences and learning experienced in childhood are important as the primary etiological factor. Here, it is seen that the symptom experienced by many children is almost the same as family members. Adult symptoms, on the other hand, are similar to the symptoms that parents can notice in childhood. (Hollifield et al, 2005)

If we briefly evaluate the cause of this discomfort through certain theories;

First of all, according to the psychodynamic approach, with the suppression and displacement of hostile impulses, depending on the prevention of the discharge of these impulses, there is an increase in tension in the organs or a narcissistic introversion and the transfer of libidinal emotions to the organs.

According to the cognitive approach, children who grow up under the influence of misconceptions and beliefs about their health, especially of anxious parents, may find themselves in automatic thoughts about their bodily sensations when they reach adulthood, such as whether I have a serious disease or whether I will die.

According to the Social Learning Theory, it is stated that the mislearning of the patient's role, which facilitates coping with problems in the early periods, and inappropriate living in adulthood cause this.

Another approach we will add here is that hypochondriasis should be evaluated within a type of Obsessive  Compulsive Disorder (OCD). Underlying this situation are obsessions that the person is seriously ill and compulsions that the person shows health-seeking behavior.

Is there no way for these people, who are almost afflicted with this disease, to be saved from being "sick", must they live for life?

Of course, there is a cure for this disorder, but the most important criterion is that the individual is willing to undergo this treatment and does not show resistance. Frequent and regular examinations of these patients will make them feel that they are taken seriously by their doctors and, as a matter of fact, will give them confidence in their doctors. In this environment of trust, attention should be shifted in different directions so that the patient does not constantly focus on his symptoms. (Köroğlu, 2004). The patient should be prevented from going around, and the purpose of the drug given to him/her should be clearly stated. (Köroğlu, 2007)

Especially, Cognitive therapy, behavioral therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, behavioral stress management and psychoeducation have all been found to be effective in reducing hypochondriasis. ||(Thomson, 2007). It has been observed that the "in vivo exposure  and response prevention" technique, which is accepted as one of the behavioral treatment directions, is very effective in the treatment of hypochondriasis. Within the scope of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, it is aimed to transform dysfunctional and automatic thoughts that cause the individual to think without affirmation into various alternative thoughts. (Hoffman et al., 2013) Within the framework of this approach, while the therapist and the patient actively cooperate in the sessions, first of all, current problems are examined and focused on this day, and it is aimed to be one's own therapist in a sense by proposing a number of solutions in order to solve the problems they encounter throughout their lives. (Şahin, 2014) 

Health is very important to every person, but if you're at a point where your health is in trouble, a point where you really can't get out, don't hesitate to get support from a health professional. The most important key to getting through this process is to be aware of what you are doing and to act in accordance with the right information and advice in order to increase your awareness.

REFERENCES

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed, text rev). Washington, DC: Author.

Asmundson GJG. Taylor S. Sevgur S. Cox BJ. Health anxiety: Classification and clinical features. In G. J. G. Asmundson, S. Taylor, & B. J. Cox (Eds.) Health anxiety: Clinical and research perspectives on hypochondriasis and related disorders (pp. 3 of 21 New York: Wiley.

Çetinkaya, E. and Özer, Ö (2021). Hamidiye Medical Faculty Student Lecture Notes Mental Health and Diseases. Istanbul: University OF Health Sciences

Köroğlu E. Psychonosology. Descriptive Clinical Psychiatry. Ankara: Physicians Publication Union, 2004: 381-408.

Köroğlu E, Güleç C. Basic Book of Psychiatry. Second edition, Ankara: HYB Basım Yayın, 2007: 386-389.

Hollifield MA. Somatoform Disorders. In: Kaplan HI, Sadock BJ. editors. Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry 8th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2005; 1800-1828.

Hofmann SG, Asmundson, G. J., & Beck, A. T. T. The science of cognitive therapy. Behavior Therapy. 2013; 44:199- 212.

Judith S. Beck TGP. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy: Basics and Herbs. Şahin M, editor: Nobel Academic Publishing;

Thomson AB, Page LA. Psychotherapies for hypochondriasis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007; 4: CD006520.

Freud rejected the Electra complex put forward by Jung, thinking that the Oedipus complex was valid for both girls and boys. According to Freud, while girls are dependent on their mothers until the phallic stage, they begin to discover the differences between the sexual organs during this period. Realizing that they do not have a penis, they blame the mother for this and tend to become attached to the father along with the anger they feel towards the mother. They unconsciously develop desires towards their father. Thus, they develop aggressive impulses against the mother, kill her and take her place in their fantasies they creates in their own world. Later, out of fear of losing the father, they identify with the mother and begin to imitate her. Freud defines the Oedipus complex in women as the "feminine Oedipus complex". Freud explains the underlying cause for this situation with the concept of "penis envy". According to him, these emotions and desires are much more intense in women, but they are strongly suppressed by women. For this reason, he argues that women will always be suppressed and will never be able to progress as much as men.

The points that distinguish the Electra and Oedipus Complexes are as follows:
•While the Oedipus complex was suggested by Freud, the Elektra complex was developed by Jung and took its place in the literature as its valid version for girls.

•While the Oedipus complex is mostly used to describe how boys hate their fathers because they see them as a potential enemy in their relationship with their mothers, the Elektra complex is used to describe how girls see their mothers as responsible for their deficiencies and failures.
•According to Jung, girls do not develop a special attachment to their mother or father until the phallic stage. Over time, they develop an attachment to the father as defense and generation mechanisms come into play.
Jung, like Freud, believed that these conflicts were seen in every child and were a natural part of this period. Overcoming these conflicts positively was an important step for the child's psychological maturity.

Electra Complex Symptoms
• Aggressive and resentful attitudes of the daughter towards the mother.
• Making sentences such as "I will marry my father" and the close attitude towards the father.
• Interrupting the contact between parents and constantly intervening between them.
• Not wanting to leave the father and constantly crying in his absence.
• In arguments between mother and father, often taking the father's side and becoming angry at the mother.
If these symptoms are at a certain level and can be overcome by the end of the period, there is no problem. However, if this complex cannot be overcome, the effects and symptoms of the Electra complex can also be seen in adulthood.

The Electra Complex Symptoms in Adulthood
• Women look for older partners and want to find traces of their fathers in their partners.
• Self-blame and mood disorders due to an unconscious desire for closeness to the father. 
• Experiencing failure in romantic relationships.
• Feeling unconscious anger towards the mother and mother figures.

Of course, it is not right to call every closeness to the opposite-sex parent an Electra complex. As a result of parental separation and some events, it may be possible to approach the opposite sex parent. At this point, it is up to parents to act consciously on this issue and not to exacerbate this conflict. In this context, certain behaviors and attitudes called "seductive parental behaviors" in the psychoanalytic approach should be avoided. If we give examples of these behaviors:

• Parents should accustom the child to sleeping separately starting from the age of 3. 
• The child should not be addressed with terms of endearment that are addressed to the partner (my love, my darling, etc.).
• Approaches that suggest sexuality should not be made to the child, and the child should not be kissed on the lips.
• From the age of 3, the child should not take a bath with the parent.

To summarize in general terms, during the phallic period, when the child's curiosity about sexuality and gender differences increases, girls begin to unconsciously desire closeness to the father and compete for the father against the mother. They feel angry at the mother, thinking that their mother gave birth to them as an inadequate person due to the differences between the genders, and compete with the mother to win the father's love. Later, in order to resolve this conflict with the mother, they identifie with the mother and take her as an example, using the defense mechanisms of suppression and identification. This conflict is a natural part of development. If the child can get through this period in a healthy way, she will gain a positive sexual identity and can establish healthy emotional relationships. If this conflict is not resolved, the child will experience various problems and negative romantic relationships in adulthood. At this point, parents need to understand the child and help her resolve the conflict by being there for her. The bond between parents should be explained to the child. In addition, the child should be helped to understand her curiosity about sexuality by answering her questions and not punishing her. Thus, the child understands that she grows up in an understanding and loving family and that both parents have an important place in her life; and can develop a successful sexual identity and positive relationships.

Bibliography
Kocabey, E. (2022,29 Mayıs). Elektra Kompleksi Nedir? Kız Çocukları Gerçekten de Annelerine Karşı Babalarını Kayırır mı? Evrim Ağacı. https://evrimagaci.org/elektra- kompleksi-nedir-kiz-cocuklari-gercekten-de-annelerine-karsi-babalarini-kayirir-mi-11849
Akkaya, B. (2021,6 Nisan). Elektra Kompleksi. Düş Psikoloji. https://duspsikoloji.com/2021/04/06/
Rehber Psikoloji. (2021, 28 Mart).Elektra Kompleksi Nedir? https://www.rehberpsikoloji.com/elektra-kompleksi-nedir/

The Theory of Cognitive DevelopmentIn Piaget's theory, Adaptation, Regulation, Adaptation, and Assimilation are the basic concepts.
According to Piaget, all living things pass through the processes of regulation and adaptation by inheritance. The living creature organizes its actions and all its thoughts into groups. In adaptation, the living creature experiences the concepts of adaptation and assimilation: schemes are rearranged with each freshly learned knowledge and experience, this is also called assimilation, if new schemes are created with each freshly learned knowledge and experience, this is also called compliance. Cognitive categories that help a person organize and interpret the information they have acquired in their own way are called schemas. In light of all this, according to Piaget, the system of thought and logic in adulthood and the system of thought and logic in childhood are very different from each other. Piaget has divided the Theory of Cognitive Development into four periods:

1. Sensory Motor Period (0-2 years):
It is the first stage of cognitive development. Piaget argued that babies learn and experience every stimulus in the external environment with their motor skills and senses. The foundation of the later stages of development is laid here, this stage lasts until the baby's language acquisition.

2. The Period before the Procedure (3-7 years):
It is Piaget's concept of ‘Object Permanence‘ or ‘Object Continuity’ that enables the transition from the sensory-motor period to this period. In the case of eliminating any object, the condition in which the object can detect the presence of the object even if the creature is not in the field of view is called object permanence. During this period, Piaget emphasized the child's mental limitations rather than his actions. Since the child cannot perform any action or process during this period, this period has been called the Pre-Process Period. Piaget observed that children are now able to embody knowledge thanks to the language acquired during this period. For example, a child can make bean grains in the water look like fish and make them float. Piaget has examined that the games performed in this way contribute to the strengthening of the child's schemas and contribute greatly to cognitive development. Based on this refinement, he has gained the 'egocentric (egocentric)’ point of view.

This period has been studied in two subgroups within itself:
A) Symbolic Function: It is a subgroup with children between the ages of 2 and 4. It is the lower stage in which the child symbolizes them by ascribing animate features to inanimate objects, and this condition is called animism.
B) Intuitive Thinking: It covers the age range from 4 to 7 years, during this period, children focus on a single feature of any object, so they very often experience a state of centration or focused interest, or they cannot Decipher that the amounts of liquid in two different containers shown are equal, so they cannot acquire the ’conservation property’. This feature is acquired during the Concrete Transactions Period.

3. Concrete Transactions Period (7-12 Years Old):
Children starting school during this period gain the principle of protection that they could not grasp in the previous period during this period. In this way, they can make sense of and solve problems related to concrete issues. Inductive reasoning can be used by taking advantage of all the experiences acquired up to this period. During this period, the child understands that a messy room can become obsolete when it is collected, and he can perceive that a broken vase cannot be the same as before.

4. Abstract Transactions Period (over 12 years):
It is the last period in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, during which the behaviors and thoughts of adolescents, not children, were studied. Abstract information is understood without having concrete information, and the problem can be solved by making an estimate of a problem using ‘deductive reasoning‘. At the last and fourth stage of cognitive development, the adolescent who has now gained abstract thinking is able to understand and interpret the feelings and thoughts of others besides himself.

Criticism of Piaget's Theory:
Although Piaget put forward his own theory, there have been many criticisms of his theory: the most frequently criticized issue is that he did not adequately address the social environment and culture in his theory. According to critics, the influence of social environment and cultural differences had a major impact on Piaget's theory of cognitive development, but Piaget ignored this. Another criticism is that Piaget's theory does not include post-adolescent development. According to critics, in this theory, the detail in which the abilities of the person are taken into account, which we call individual differences, has been ignored. Despite the criticism of Piaget's theory, Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development has made a very important contribution to the Psychology resource and its students.

Bibliography

• biography. info/person/jean -piaget (Accessed: September 13, 2023)
• biography. net. tr/jean -piaget -who is (Accessed: September 13, 2023)
• novarge.com.tr/blog/piaget-in-bilissel-gelisim-kuramı-ve-donemleri.html (Accessed:September 13, 2023)
• dergipark.org.tr piagete-gore-development(Accessed:September 14, 2023)
• evrimagaci.org/piagetin-bilissel-gelisim-teorisi-nedir (Accessed:September 14, 2023)

Attachment theory is a theory based on understanding individual differences, the existence of people's need to establish close emotional bonds, and the universality of this need (Sümer, 2006; Bowlby, 2012; 2014). It is an approach that explains why people tend to form strong emotional bonds with others who are important to them. Attachment is an enduring emotional bond, defined as the tendency to seek and maintain closeness to a certain figure, especially in stressful situations (Bowlby, 2012). Attachment is a mutual adaptation process and develops as each member of the attachment process leaves a mark on the other (Ruppert, 2011).How the parent adapts to the child's temperament affects the child's attachment quality, and one of the situations that shapes this emotional flow between them is the relationship style between the attachment figure and the baby. This mutual emotional exchange between the mother and the baby determines the attachment dynamics and provides the groundwork for the child's future mental, emotional and social abilities (Linzdey et al., 1989; Zeanah et al., 1993; Lewis, 1995; 1999, cited in Schore, 2000; Ruppert, 2011; Masterson, 2013).

Bolwby emphasized that newborn babies and children need to establish a close relationship with their caregivers. The relationship between mother and baby becomes evident with the search for closeness (Hortaçsu 1991). Bowlby (2012) argues that there are six states of attachment:

1) Proximity protection behavior: The desire to be near the primary attachment figure.

2) Use of the mother as a resource base for exploration: When a child observes that his mother is looking at him and ready to reciprocate whenever he desires closeness to his mother, he is likely to be happy and able to explore long distances.

3) Feeling: Feels safe if the primary attachment figure is unquestionably next to him or within easy reach. 

4) Approach behavior: Approaching the mother and watching her.

5) Exploratory behavior: Focusing especially on the mother figure and the intensity and continuity of paying attention to objects in the environment;

6) Withdrawal (fear) behavior: How it orients itself, especially in relation to the mother figure.

In babies, separation from the attachment figure manifests itself as illness and fatigue in later ages (Goodfriend 1993). The researcher found that in babies who were separated from their mothers immediately after birth for various reasons and taken into special care; He stated that development slowed down or stopped, these babies did not eat, experienced social withdrawal, and constantly had a sad expression on their faces (Boccio et al., 1994). They suggested that in case of separation from the primary attachment object for any reason, the baby's heart rate increases and there are differences in the functioning of neurobiological systems.

Troy (1995) emphasized that the physical bond between mother and baby is very important. Researchers have suggested that a mother's naked embrace of her baby may have a positive relationship with attachment. For this reason, contact with the mother is very important as the baby is awake and receptive in the first 45-60 minutes following birth.

Bowlby argues that the feeling of attachment and trust depends on two factors:

 • Whether the attachment figure responds to calls for support and protection;

• Your self; whether he or she is seen as a person to whom other people, and especially the attachment figure, will respond in a helpful manner. In practice, they influence each other. In other words, it can be said that the attachment figure model and the self model develop by influencing each other (Bowlby, 1973; Bartholomew and Horowitz, 1991; Bowlby, 2014).

In contrast to children's instinctive behaviors such as crying, smiling, and making eye contact, various adult behaviors such as hugging the baby when it cries or speaking shrilly to it create a child's attachment to an adult (Bee and Boyd, 2009). According to attachment theorists, the attachment style, which reflects the relationship with the caregiver in the early stages of life and contains the designs of the self and others in the psychological structure, generally remains the same. It is stated that "Whether a person has established a relationship with another person and whether this relationship has supportive and protective features can be observed in every period of life and in close relationships" (Kesebir, Özdoğan Kavzoğlu and Üstündağ, 2011).

It is critical for the baby to establish a secure attachment with the primary caregiver for the later years of his life. Research shows that the attachment style developed by an individual may have a positive or negative impact on all future close relationships, and that it actually shapes the relationships he establishes. An individual's attachment style can greatly affect their romantic identity and social identity. It is suggested that the early attachment relationship is the prototype of future love relationships (Waters et al. 2002). The person reflects the attachment style he/she has built with his/her primary caregiver in his/her behaviors, emotions, and choices in the relationships he/she establishes and reveals his attachment style in his reactions to the events he experiences. Attachment patterns formed in infancy are not immutable throughout life. Since cognitions and behaviors can change, flexibility can also be provided in the structure that activates attachment.

SOURCES

 • Arslan, E. and Teze, S. (2016). Attachment theory. In, N. Sargın, S. Avşaroğlu & A. Ünal (Eds.), Reflections from Education and Psychology, (pp.71-90). Konya: Strip Bookstore

• Soysal AŞ., Bodur A., İşeri E., Şenol S. Attachment Process in Infancy: A Review. J Clinical Psy. 2005; 8(2): 88-99.

"Darling, I trust you, but I don't trust the environment. I know you can do no wrong, but there are so many different people These are the main phrases used by people with Othello syndrome.  

Family is the most fundamental place where individuals begin to learn about life. We are born into it and find ourselves within the family system. Our thoughts and behaviors begin to take shape within this system, and our initial learnings occur within our family. Therefore, it is of great importance to consider the family system when examining the difficulties people experience. Hence, the topic we will extensively address in this article is one of the approaches within the family system, Virginia Satir's "Existential/Humanistic Approach," also known as the Experiential Approach. This approach, known by many similar titles, was named by Virginia Satir as the "Human Validation Process Model."

KEY CONCEPTS OF SATIR'S EXISTENTIAL APPROACH

At the core of her approach, Satir emphasizes that each person is unique and special, highlighting the concept of self-worth (self-esteem). From someone who embraces this value, it is expected that they are aware that everyone is unique and special. Satir expressed that individuals are unique in the following way: "You are a member of the human race, and you are a miracle. Moreover, you are a 'unique, one-of-a-kind miracle'" (F. Akkoyun; 2019).

The importance of communication is also emphasized in the approach. Functional communication is described as open, consistent, measured, and appropriate. On the other hand, four problematic communication patterns are discussed, which include placaters who strive to please others, blamers who resemble bosses with their harshness and accusations, computer people who analyze everything and prioritize logic, and distractors who focus on things that have no meaning. Satir highlights that people resort to these patterns during moments of stress, emphasizing that there is no inherently "bad" person but rather problematic communication processes.

Another fundamental concept is the "family triangle." This concept is crucial in many family theories and represents the group consisting of three members of the family: mother, father, and child. Satir believes that children learn many things starting from this triangle. According to her, this triangle holds significant power and can provide excellent support if used effectively.

While discussing concepts, she also mentions the personal mandala and family rules. To briefly touch upon these concepts, the personal mandala discusses eight dimensions (body, thoughts, emotions, sensations, relationships, context, nutrition, and spirit) and emphasizes that they work interdependently and should not be considered separately. In terms of family rules, Satir suggests that rules should be flexible, changeable, and age-appropriate.

THERAPEUTIC TECHNIQUES OF THE APPROACH

• Creating the Family Sculpture: This technique is often used in communication problems within families (but not limited to this situation). Family members are asked to take on positions that reflect their communication within the family. The therapist may ask various questions to help family members understand their thoughts and feelings or select one person to position family members and ask for their comments. For example, a child can be asked to position their family members and explain why they are in those positions.

• Family Stress Ballet: This technique is a continuation of the previous one. Members are expected to perform actions that reflect their experiences. While guidance can be provided, it can also be limited to observation.

• Communication Analysis: This technique is used to establish functional communication and understand communication problems. The narrative of the event is requested, and communication is analyzed, with a focus on emotions during the process. This helps create awareness.

• Therapist's Communication: In this approach, therapists can use reframing, humor, and metaphor techniques. These techniques help clients see things from different perspectives.

• Touch: As the name suggests, this technique involves physical touch. It is recommended to be careful and appropriate. The touch should convey the message that the client is not alone and is safe. Satir emphasizes the importance of respectful touch in forming a special connection.

• Family Thermometer: There are five main topics in this technique: appreciation, life's negatives, riddles, new information, hopes, and desires. Family members are asked to create this thermometer together and place it in a visible location. They are encouraged to talk about it, share their thoughts, and interact with each other regarding this thermometer.

• Client's Parts Party: This technique is aimed at helping the client understand their internal state. The client is asked to observe their feelings and different states from an external perspective. In a group setting, participants take on roles based on the client's descriptions, helping the client accept that each role belongs to them and gain self-understanding.

Overall, the goal of this approach is to increase self-esteem among family members, help them realize their potential, and maintain peace within the family by promoting functional communication.

REFERENCES

Nancy L. Murdock, "Psikolojik Danışma ve Psikoterapi Kuramları Olgu Sunumu Yaklaşımıyla," Translated by Füsun Akkoyun (Ankara: Nevzat Argun, 2019).

Historical Background of the Empty Chair Technique:

Jacob Levy Moreno, known as a student of Freud, drew attention to the Empty Chair Technique and developed it. Moreno did not fully embrace psychotherapy but focused on the importance of active participation, leading to the development of this technique. In later years, the Empty Chair Technique, also known as "psychodrama," was used in group settings.

Gestalt Therapists:

Fritz Perls is the founder of Gestalt Therapy. Gestalt therapy emphasizes focusing on the present moment and dealing with difficulties in the same way. Additionally, these psychologists believe that individuals must relive their traumas to overcome them. Gestalt therapists were the first to directly use the Empty Chair Technique. Therapists who use the Empty Chair Technique should also adopt a humanistic approach.

When the Empty Chair Technique May Be Helpful:

• Depression
• Anxiety disorders
• Interpersonal mistreatment
• Grief
• Personality disorders
• Trauma related to social issues
• Internal conflict
• Self-hatred

Step-by-Step Application of the Empty Chair Technique:

1. Confirm that the client is ready to participate voluntarily.
2. Ask the client to create roles on opposite ends of the chairs.
3. If the client's focus is scattered, you can ask them to switch chairs.
4. Encourage the client to use open expressions while sitting in one chair, and when they switch to the other chair, remind them of these expressions and inquire about their emotions.
5. Ask the client which role they feel more connected to and explore that role further.
6. During role transitions, the client can become aware of the voices associated with each role and express their emotions.
7. In group therapy settings, group members can facilitate the client's experiments by taking on different roles while the client is in one chair.

Considerations for Using the Empty Chair Technique:

• Client consent and willingness are essential.
• The therapist should have adopted a humanistic approach.
• The therapist should explain to the client in a way they understand why they are using this technique and discuss the purpose of the technique. The client must be fully aware of the roles being created, and there should be no ambiguity.
• The therapist should closely monitor the direction of the dialogue, recognizing the need for change if themes such as blame, helplessness, insistence, rigidity, or worthlessness dominate the conversation.

Challenges in Using the Empty Chair Technique:

• Resistance from the client can be a challenge, stemming from the client finding the technique unrealistic or not wanting to express themselves aloud.
• The technique requires imagination and projection skills from the individual. Without the ability to accurately imagine the direction or personality they are aiming for, the intended therapeutic gains may not be achieved.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a psychological theory developed by Abraham Maslow in 1943 to understand human behavior and motivations. The hierarchy of needs consists of five main levels: physiological needs, safety needs, love and belonging needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs.

Abraham Maslow, a psychologist, has worked to understand what underlies people's behavior, goals, and motivations. He focused on the needs of people in his works and gathered these needs in a pyramid of needs under five headings. The needs are, in order, physiological needs, safety needs, love and belonging needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs. Let's examine them in detail one by one.

1. PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS

These needs, which form the lowest layer of the pyramid, are the most primitive needs of people. According to Maslow, these needs are innate. The physiological needs that enable humans to survive are: breathing, food, water, shelter, clothing, excretion, sexuality, reproduction, and sleep.

2. THE NEED FOR SECURITY AND PROTECTION

The second level of need for security and protection refers to people's search for physical and emotional security. Protection from dangers and seeking a stable environment are the main features of this level. Safety needs include: job, resource, body, order/law, stability, health, and property security.

3. THE NEED FOR LOVE AND BELONGING

The third level of need for love and belonging encompasses people's needs for relationships, belonging, and love. This group of needs allows us to have a healthy and positive relationship with other people and ourselves. The need for love is not just a need that we can meet from other people, we need to establish a relationship with ourselves in the same way. Love and belonging needs include: family, friendship, intimacy, self-love, belonging, love and affection.

4. NEED RESPECT

The need for esteem, which is at the fourth level, refers to the desire of individuals to earn their own dignity and to gain the respect of others. In this need group, we want to respect others and be respected by others. Not only respectful communication with other people, but also our communication with ourselves should be in this direction, so self-esteem and self-confidence are also included in this need group. The esteem needs include: self-confidence, self-esteem, achievement, status, power, dignity, respect, and being respected.

5. THE NEED FOR SELF-ACTUALIZATION

At the top of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is the need for self-actualization. So what is self-actualization? Self-actualization is the realization and development of one's potential and abilities. This level represents people's willingness to achieve their personal goals using their highest abilities. The need for self-actualization includes: being creative, virtuous, unprejudiced, problem-solving, and accepting truth.

While Maslow was creating the pyramid, he determined that people progressed from the lowest layer to the top layer, so he created the pyramid starting from the very foundation. According to Maslow, a person cannot pass to the other layer without meeting the needs in one layer. For example, let's take a person who does not live in a safe environment, this individual cannot reach the level of love and belonging without meeting the second level of security and protection needs. It must first meet the needs of the level at which it is located.

Maslow argued that few people pass/can pass the level of self-actualization. In addition, Maslow said that people who pass will show distinct differences from people who do not pass.

Finally, Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory provides an important framework for understanding human psychology and explaining motivation. This hierarchy, from physiological needs to the highest level of self-actualization, can be a valuable tool for understanding human behavior and goals.

The Nice Girl Syndrome is a condition where women tend to stay in the background and remain obedient and silent in environments where men take the forefront. Parents raise male children by telling them they can do anything and do it well, while conditioning female children to prioritize the superiority of others. Others' desires are deemed more important than their own, and they avoid confrontation. They take on the burden of responsibility from a young age and are in constant motion. They dislike criticism, perceiving it as an attack against themselves. Generally, their characteristics include being evasive, anxious, having low self-esteem, and low self-respect. They believe they can only be complete with a man. They believe their lives are normal and struggle to say no. They seem unaffected by anything and struggle to express themselves. They never admit to being tired or fed up, acting as if nothing is wrong. They believe that if they don't know anything or do anything, nobody will love them and they won't be accepted. Etiquette is more important to them than anything else. To break free from this mindset, they can start by acknowledging that they won't strive to please others, won't ignore situations they dislike, will say no, and won't seek approval. They need to let go of feeling guilty and learn how to set boundaries. They should express their own desires and needs and put themselves in the spotlight. Ultimately, they should be kind to themselves.

   Gestalt Theory, (also known as Gestalt Psychology or Gestaltism) 20. This theory emerged in century Germany with Max Wertheimer's article and focused on perception in cognitive processes. Gestalt Theory focuses on how the mind sees perceived things as a whole. We can sum it up with  Kurt Koffka's sentence  ‘It is something different from the coming together of all the parts that make up it.” Therefore, the whole should not be studied as something formed due to the coming together of parts; it should be studied independently on its own.

   The Gestalt Theory is holistic. An object, its behavior, etc. to break it into pieces breaks the integrity. For example, the word ’sea' consists of the letters s-e-a. But when divided into letters, the meaning of the word breaks down. Instead of looking at the pieces individually, we get meaningfulness when we look at the whole.

   For example, sometimes we may not be able to make sense of more than one complex event in our daily life, but our friend, who we tell the events respectively, can easily make sense when he looks at the whole from the outside with an eye. the digits 1 and 0 can make the number 10 from these two digits. Because the concepts that make the main meaning are the pattern and connection Decoupled between events.

   Gestalt Psychologists have studied how the cognitive process comes together, perceives, and interprets the individual's environment, and have concluded that the mind is interested in the whole rather than the part, even combining elements that are decoupled, making them familiar to itself. This theory consists of principles that explain visual perception.

GESTALT PRINCIPLES

1.                The Principle of Proximity

According to this principle, the mind tends to perceive objects close to each other as a group. For example, in the image above, there are 6 equal rounds on the left and the right. However, although the Decals on the left do not make sense, the decals on the right come together with symmetrical distances and form a triangle.

2.                The Principle of Similarity

The mind tends to make similar elements into a whole/group and give them meaning. Thus, the elements gain perceptual integrity with their colors, sizes, or shapes. Clustering is ensured by the color similarity of the elements, and integrity is ensured by the distances of the elements from each other. In the image above, the black rounds have achieved uniformity with their equal colors and have gained a line form.

3.                Principle of Closure

By this principle, the mind perceives incomplete elements as a whole by completing the missing parts. For example, although there is a space between the elements in the image above, our mind perceives this space in the form of a triangle.

4.                Principle Of Symmetry

According to the Principle of Symmetry, the mind perceives elements in a symmetrical way focused on a center point. It Junks the elements to be symmetrical. Therefore, even if the elements are not symmetrical, the mind tends to perceive them symmetrically. For example, the picture on the side is a representation of the symmetry principle. In this notation, we see square and curved brackets. This is the reason why we see 3 pairs of brackets instead of seeing 6 brackets in the image above.

5.                  The Principle of Common Fate

According to the Principle of Common Destiny, our mind perceives objects in a smooth trajectory, as in the image above.

6.                Principle of Continuity

According to the Continuity Principle, the mind perceives elements that are side by side in the form of a group with perceptual integrity. Even if two different wholes intersect, the groups are considered undivided and continue to be considered separate.

7.                   The Principle of Prägnanz

When the elements come together with the pattern, the mind tends to perceive these elements as a group. This principle is based on the idea of clarity at the heart of Gestalt theory.

8.                 The Principle of Past Experience

According to the Principle of Past Experience, in some cases, the way items are perceived according to our past experiences may change. For example, in the image above, some of us will see a vase, while some of us will see a silhouette of two human faces facing each other.

The psychologists who introduced the Self-Determination Theory thought that behaviorism did not take into account the complex thinking structures of people. At this point, they underlined that motivation is a very important element for behavior and stated that there is more than one type of motivation. The two most important types of motivation that the Self-Determination Theory focuses on are autonomous and controlled motivation.

Autonomous motivation; It names what we do when we have a sense of willingness, will, and choice. If people do an activity with feelings of interest, enjoyment, and value, they are autonomously motivated. When people are autonomously motivated, their performance, psychological and physical health, and commitment are better than when they are controlled.

Controlled motivation is doing something to get reward or avoid punishment. If a person feels pressured, demanded, and compelled to do it, they are motivated in a controlled way.

Self-Determination Theory stated that there are two types of autonomous motivation. These are intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic motivation, as the name suggests, comes from within. Intrinsic motivation is to do something because we are interested in it, we think it suits us, or we think it will be fun. For example, a person who plays basketball has this motivation because he enjoys playing and thinks this sport is suitable for him.

Extrinsic motivation means that we do a behavior because of the consequences of external sources such as reward or punishment. For example, it is extrinsic motivation for a child to attend a drawing class because his parents will reward him with a new bike. In this case, extrinsic motivation is a type of controlled motivation. However, Richard Ryan has made a significant breakthrough that extrinsic motivation can be autonomous. Richard Ryan said that people sometimes internalize extrinsic motivations in some way. In this case, a person can be motivated autonomously by owning and internalizing that extrinsic motivation. For example, let's consider the kid who went to a drawing class to win a new bike award. If this child starts to enjoy the drawing course he attends after a while and finds it suitable for himself, he will be autonomously motivated.

Self-Determination Theory states that people have some basic psychological needs. Among these basic needs, there are three concepts that Self-Determination Theory particularly emphasizes: autonomy, competence and relatedness. According to the theory, people who can satisfy these needs in a healthy way have a positive psychology. People who cannot meet these needs face negative psychological consequences.

Autonomy; It is the name given to the need to feel control over one's own life by one's own will and choice. If people feel that they have lost control over their own lives, they enter into a number of negative moods. Thus, Self-Determination Theory emphasizes that autonomy is a universally human need.

  A person at some point in his life wants to feel successful, effective and competent about any subject. This need to feel effective and competent is called competence. In order to meet this need, people engage in various activities such as getting a job, learning a language, attending courses, and acquiring a hobby.

Humans are social creatures by nature and they need feelings of belonging, importance and commitment throughout their lives. This need is called relatedness. Concepts such as kinship and friendship are important for relatedness. It is one of the most basic and important needs of a person to be cared for and to be cared for by someone else, or to be in a group and feel belonging to that group.

Motivation is needed in all areas of life, such as home, school, workplace, health, safety, sports. Whether we are parents, teachers or bosses, if we want to produce effective motivation, we have to meet and support the psychological needs of the person in front of us, which form the basis of Self-Determination Theory. If we are parents, we must provide these conditions for our children and support their needs, and if we are a boss and want to encourage the most effective motivation, we must support these psychological needs of our employees. At this point, Self-Determination Theory has a very important role in every aspect of life.

Freud analyzed the story of Oedipus in Greek mythology to develop the Oedipus complex. Oedipus was abandoned by his father after birth and later reunited with his real family, but unknowingly killed his father and married his mother. Freud believed that children also have similar sexual desires and that these desires are a part of normal development. Boys develop romantic feelings for their mothers and see their fathers as rivals. Girls develop romantic feelings for their fathers and see their mothers as rivals.

However, it is not normal for children to recognize and express these desires. Freud believed that these desires are a part of normal development but should be directed in the right way. Otherwise, problems may arise in children's sexual identities, leading to psychological problems in the future.

Freud's Oedipus complex theory has been criticized by some who argue that it is not a universal phenomenon, specific to Western culture, and that similar desires do not exist in other cultures. Others argue that the Oedipus complex is sexist, based on heterosexual marriage, and disregards people with different sexual orientations.

Despite different views on the Oedipus complex, it is an important concept in psychoanalytic theory and provides important clues about human behavior. Although the Oedipus complex is a part of normal development in children, it is not normal for children to recognize and express these desires. Redirecting these desires in the right way can help children develop healthy sexual identities.

Research has shown that the Oedipus complex can be seen differently in men and women. For example, a girl's romantic feelings towards her father may be weaker compared to a boy's feelings towards his mother. However, the Oedipus complex is important for developing healthy sexual identities in both genders.

Those who want to learn more about the Oedipus complex can also look at Freud's other works to gain more knowledge about psychoanalytic theory. Additionally, examining research on the Oedipus complex can help understand its impact on human behavior.

In conclusion, the Oedipus complex is an important concept in psychoanalytic theory and provides important clues about human behavior. Although it is a part of normal development in children, it is not normal for children to recognize and express these desires. Redirecting these desires in the right way can help children develop healthy sexual identities.

The denial stage is the first reaction of people who do not want to accept the reality of death. At this stage, the person tries to deny or accept the truth, or to believe that the truth is not relevant to him. For example, he might use phrases like "This can't be true" or "This must be a nightmare".

The anger stage comes after the denial stage. The person usually accepts death, but feels that it is unfair or cruel to him. The person may blame himself, his loved ones, or God. The anger stage can cause the person to oscillate between accepting and not accepting death.

The bargaining stage is when the person tries to negotiate against death. At this stage, the person tries to make an agreement in which he can make an exchange for himself or his loved ones. May use phrases such as "Please God, heal me and give me back, I'll be a better person".

The depression stage is a stage in which a person begins to prepare for death. With the acknowledgment of reality, the person accepts that death is inevitable and may experience feelings of sadness, sadness and helplessness in this situation. This stage can cause the person to isolate themselves and not enjoy life.

Finally, the acceptance stage is the stage where the person accepts death and begins to make the final preparations. The person has now accepted the reality of death and begins to take the necessary steps to prepare for death. This stage is a stage where one should take time to make peace, tranquility and final preparations.

These five stages refer to the different emotional reactions that each person may go through in the process of facing death. However, not everyone goes through these stages in the same order, and each stage can be experienced at different times. Some people may skip one or more phases or may not experience some phases when they are close to death. This process can vary depending on a person's life experiences, beliefs, culture, and other factors.

The Kübler-Ross theory has created awareness of how people can react emotionally in the process of facing death. This theory can help healthcare professionals and caregivers better respond to the needs of patients and their families. Also, this theory can be associated with other difficult periods in people's lives, such as a serious illness, divorce or loss.

However, the Kübler-Ross theory has also received criticism. Some critics argue that this theory is valid only in Western culture and that the way people in other cultures face death may be different. Also, while the theory acknowledges that each individual may experience a different process, it makes the assumption that these processes can only be broken down into certain stages.

As a result, the Kübler-Ross theory can be used as a model to understand people's emotional reactions in the process of facing death. However, it is possible for each individual to respond to this process differently, and this process can vary depending on culture, beliefs and other factors.